Monuments of India

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2011-07-23T11:45:00.002+05:30

Dear Friends,
The content of this blog has been moved to my new site, http://puratattva.in, however I have kept a single page here so that you can access links through the map.

Following states are click-able - Tamilnadu, Madhya Pradesh and Chattisgarh

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Pawaya - Glamour of the Ancient Padmavati

2011-07-16T10:51:00.000+05:30

Introduction – Pawaya (पवाया) is identified with ancient Padmavati by many scholars. Padmavati is mentioned in the Puranas and many Sanskrit literature works. Vishnu and Vayu Purana mention that the Nagas will reign over Padmavati, Kantipuri and Mathura. Padmavati is also mentioned in the Malatimadhavam (मालतीमाधवं) of Bhavabhuti (भवभूति), Harshacharita (हर्षचरितं) of Bana (बाण) and Kanthabharam (कंठाभरम) of Bhoja (भोज). H H Wilson identified Padmavati with some unknown city in Berar south of Narmada and afterwards with Bhagalpur on the river Ganga. Cunningham mentions that as Padmavati is quoted along with Mathura so its location should not be very far from the latter. He takes a reference from Malatimadhavam of Bhavabhuti which helps in identifying this ancient city. Padmavati is referred in this drama in the following verses:

पद्मावती विमलवारीविशालसिन्धु
पारा सरित्परिकरच्छलतो बिभतिम
उक्तुंगसोधसुरमंदिरगोपुरात्ट-
संघट्टपाटितविमुक्तमिवान्तग्क्षिम ||9/1||

“How wide the prospects spreads – mountain and rock,
Towns, villages, and woods, and glittering streams,
There where the Para and the Sindhu wind,
The towers and temples, pinnacles and gates,
And spires of Padmavati, like a city
Precipitated from the skies, appear
Inverted in the pure translucent wave !
There flows Lavana’s frolic stream, &c.”

The drama further mention that the river Lavana (लवणा) also flows nearby. The forest on the nearby hilly area is full of sandal, kadamba and jamun tress. This area is also graced by the presence of Godavari river. At the south of the foot of this hill is graced with the junction of Sindhu and Madhumati rivers. Lord Shiva is gracing this junction and known as Suvarnabindu.

Cunningham indentifies this Padmavati with present Narwar near Gwalior. The river Sindhu of the drama is river Sindh on which Narwar is situated. Para is identified with river Parvati which flows about 7 km north of Sindh and river Lavana is river Lun or Nun which rises near Paniar and falls into Sindh at Chandpur-Sonari. River Madhumati is identified with present Mohwar or Madhuwar which meets Sindh about 12 km above Sonari. The identification of these four rivers in the immediate neighborhood of Narwar with that of the drama warrants the conclusion that Narwar is the ancient Padmavati.

M B Garde carried out excavations at Pawaya in 1924-25, 1933-34 and 1941. He identifies Pawaya with ancient Padmavati rejecting Cunningham’s identification with Narwar. He states that as Narwar is about 40 km from the junction of Parvati and Sindh rivers hence it is not a proper identification. Also river Nun or Lun (ancient Lavana) flows at a distance of 7 km from Pawaya which suggests that Pawaya would be a proper identification. The ruins and excavations at Pawaya revealed that it is a very old settlement and enjoyed considerable importance during earlier days. A large number of coins are discovered here, more than that of Narwar. It has surviving remains of the Gupta era while Narwar does not have any. Though Garde’s identification is widely accepted among scholars however I am little confused about mention of Godavari along with other rivers, or it may be that the text I have referred is somewhat a corrupt copy of the original manuscript as neither Garde nor Cunningham mentioned about the mention of Godavari river.

There is no name mentioned of any Naga king in the Puranas. There are not many inscriptions found at Pawaya which may help in constructing the chronology of kings here. Only one inscription is found, at the pedestal, which records the installation of the image of Manibhadra in the fourth regnal year of King Sivanandi. This king is not known from any other sources. The only source of information is coins, which are found in abundance at Pawaya and other places nearby like Narwar. Cunningham constructed a Naga chronology with the help of coins, which is later modified by R D Banerji.

Bhima	210-231 CE
Skanda	231-245 CE
Vasu	245-260 CE
Brihaspati	260-275 CE
Ravi	275-290 CE
Prabhakara	290-305 CE
Bhava	305-320 CE
Deva	320-335 CE
Ganapati	335-340 CE

Banerji’s chronology of the Naga kings of Pawaya starts with Bhima who is referred as Maharaja in his coins. He assigns the period of 210-231 CE to Bhima. He is succeeded by Skanda who adopted the peacock emblem of Bhima in his coins. Skanda is succeeded by Vasu who also continued the peacock emblem. The coins of these two rulers were counter-struck which suggests some political instability during their time. Brihaspati was the next ruler who used couchant bull in his coins. Ravi, Prabhakara, Bhava, Deva and Ganapati were next rulers. Only Bhava and Ganapati are known from other inscription, however these are not specifically mentioned as Nagas and also no mention of their country or capital.

Bhava is mentioned in a Vakataka record which states that Rudrasena I was the daughter’s son of Bharasiva Naga family who seized the Gangetic valley by its valor and performed ten ashvamedha sacrifices. Ganapati is mentioned in the Allahabad Pillar Inscription of Samudragupta. Coins of Ganapati are found at Ujjain in which he is referred as Dharadhisha, Lord of Dhar. Harshacharita of Bana mentions Nagasena as the ruler of Padmavati.

Many coins of otherwise unknown kings are discovered at Pawaya. These kings are Sukhadeva, Mahata, Sabalasena, Amitasena and Yatga. Only the coins of Sukhadeva are found at Ujjain. However presence of these coins at Pawaya suggests that the area around Pawaya was probably ruled by these kings for some time.

Terracotta in Gujari Mahal Museum

Terracotta found at Pawaya are considered the most beautiful form the artistic point of view. These are among the best examples of the Naga and Gupta art. As these are mostly remains of images in form of heads of various human figures so the most noticeable features are their hair styles and their expressions. There are many secular forms like animals and birds. All these terracotta are displayed in the Gujari Mahal Museum at Gwalior. These terracotta are included in my picasa album which is linked in this article.

General Epigraphs – Not many epigraphs are found at Pawaya except one which is on the pedestal of an image.
1. On pedestal of Manibhadra Image – this image is exhibited in Gwalior museum – the inscription records the installation of this image of Yaksha in the fourth regnal year of Svamin Sivanandi.

Monuments – Various artifacts were discovered during excavations carried out by M B Garde. Most of the findings are exhibited in Gwalior museum. These exhibits are there in my picasa album, which is linked in this article as a slideshow. Few artifacts are exhibited in the National Museum at New Delhi. The only monuments of interest at Pawaya is a brick temple which is described in detail below.

Gupta Brick Temple

Brick Temple – This is probably the biggest brick temple of the Gupta period. It is a three terraced structure raised upon a high raised plinth. There are ordinary passages built into this plinth which leads a visitor inside onto the first storey of the temple. The first tier above the plinth is built with pilasters all around, all of bricks. Above this tire are two more tiers. There would have been more tiers as the structure looks pyramidal in shape however those have not survived now. Stairs on two sides leads to the second tier. As per an official information board, this temple is dated to fourth century CE.

There are few remarkable piece of art discovered at Pawaya so a mention of these is very much necessary here.

Surya Capital in Gujari Mahal Museum

Vishnu/Surya Capital – As per J C Harle this is an unparalleled piece of art. This Pawaya capital has two figures standing back to back and a wheel in between. There are few theories about the identification of these figures. Stella Kramrisch identifies it as a Bodhisattva, while J C Harle goes for Vishnu or Surya because of the wheel in between and P K Agrawala identifies it with the Chakravartin form of Vishnu. The only similar capital is the capital of the Eran pillar. However the figures on the Eran capital are of Garuda.

Fan-Palm Capital in Gujari Mahal Museum

Fan-Palm Capital – This unique piece of art was once a capital of some high pillar standing at Pawaya. It is made of white-sandstone. Fan-palm is supposed to be a symbol of Sankarshana or Balarama. The capital is in form of a stem of a tree on which nine roundish fruits with two large bending dovery fan-shaped leaves have been created. Above this are two more leaves which are parallel to the below ones. The whole model is superbly conceived and admirably executed.

A door lintel from Pawaya in Gujari Mahal Museum

Door Lintel - A superb piece of art is reflected in form of a door lintel discovered at Pawaya. It has three different sections which narrate the story of Vishnu as Vamana conquering over Bali. The left most part depicts a dance assembly probably held at the Bali's court. The middle section shows the Bali's palace equipped with windows and balconies. Here Bali is shown granting wishes of the Vamana by pouring water in the latter's hands. The rightmost panel shows Vishnu in his Trivikrama posture.

How to Reach – Pawaya is located about 20 km from Dabra on Dabra-Bhitarvar road. Dabra is about 30 km from Gwalior on Gwalior-Jhansi route. Approach to Pawaya is very bad as you need to go about 6 km inside on a road where only bike, bicycle or tractors can travel. The monument is called Pahadhiya these days and has a 4th century CE Gupta brick temple whose platform only is left. Once you cross the 1 KM Bhitarvar milestone on Dabra-Bhitavar road, you need to take a left turn to village Pawaya which is situated near river Mandar. You need to ask a lot from local people to reach this place, better take some local with you if he/she knows the place.

References:

Agrawala, V S (1977). Gupta Art. Prithivi Prakashan. New Delhi.
Cunningham, Alexander (1872). Four Reports Made During the Years 1862-63-64-65 (Vol II). Archaeological Survey of India. New Delhi.
Deva, Krishna (1969). Temples of North India. National Book Trust. New Delhi. ISBN 9788123719702.
Harle, J C (1974). Gupta Sculpture. Munshiram Manoharlal. New Delhi. ISBN 8121506417
Jain, Kailash Chand. Malwa Through the Ages, from the earliest times to 1305 AD. Motilal Banarasidas. New Delhi.
Michell, George (1989). The Penguin Guide to the Monuments of India Volume I: Buddhist, Jain, Hindu. London. Penguin Books. ISBN 9780140081442
Mishra, S N (1992). Gupta Art and Architecture. Agam Kala Prakashan. New Delhi.
Rai, Uday Narayan (2006). Bhartiya Kala (in Hindi). Lokbharati Prakashan. Allahabad. ISBN 8180310973
भवभूति कृत मालतीमाधवं | चौखम्भा प्रकाशन | वाराणसी

Khoh - A Temple Fallen

2011-07-13T21:05:00.003+05:30

Introduction - Khoh (खोह) is a very small settlement near town Unchehara in Satna district of Madhya Pradesh. Though it is a small village now however it would have held a very important position during the Gupta period. Not less than eight copper-plate grants are discovered at this place and all are dated in the Gupta Era. There were two dynasties ruling over this region, Baghelkhand, the Parivrajakas and Uchchakalpas.

Alexander Cunningham visited Khoh in 1873 and reported its antiquities. His main purpose was to visit its great mound and found the exact finding spots of various grants which were in possession of the King of Uchachara. He found various statues during his excavation of the mound.

History of the Parivrajaka Dynasty - Three copper grants of Parivrajaka rulers are discovered at Khoh, two of Maharaja Hastin and one for Maharaja Samkshobha. Their epigraphs are discovered at other places as well like Bhumara, Jabalpur however no epigraph of other than these two kings are discovered. They calin their descent from the great sage, Susarman of Naga-gotra. Genealogy of the dynasty, after analysing their epigraphs, is as follows:

Maharaja Damodara

Maharaja Prabhanjana

Maharaja Devadhya

Maharaja Hastin

Maharaja Samkshobha

The earliest known date for Maharaja Hastin is the year 156 of the Gupta Era, 475-76 CE, found on one of the grant discovered at Khoh. The earliest know date of Maharaja Samkshobha is year 199 of the Gupta Era as per his Betul plates. Last know that of this king is year 209 of the Gupta Era. Now giving average 20 years rule to all the ancestors, their updated genealogy looks as given below:

Maharaja Damodara	412-432 CE
Maharaja Prabhanjana	433-453 CE
Maharaja Devadhya	454-474 CE
Maharaja Hastin	475-517 CE
Maharaja Samkshobha	518-528 CE

One riddle is whether the Parivrajakas were a feaudatory of the Guptas or they were under the Guptas at their start but got independence later on. Hastin continuously mentions in his grants that these many years have been passed in enjoyment of this earth by the Gupta rulers however he did not mention any name of his overlord, if he had. Was he independent by this time or it is not considered as a grave mistake to omit your overlord's name.

Both the possibilities may be true. Samudragupta won many kings of South India but how many mentioned about him or any other Gupta emperor? It may be said that because he returned back their kingdoms so there was no necessity to mention his name as an overlord. Ok agreed, how about his tributary states which were paying tributes under his royal emblem, Garuda-danda. None of the inscriptions coming from these state mention the Guptas as their overlords though some used their calendar to date their inscriptions. Now you may say that these tributary states were very far so such omissions were hard to detect. But the issue is that is such an omission be seen as a serious mistake on part of the donor even if detected?

Time of Maharaja Hastin falls after the Gupta Emperor Skandagupta whose last year was 467 CE and during the reign of the Gupta emperor Budhagupta (476-495 CE). Time between Skandagupta and Budhagupta was a troublesome period for the Gupta dynasty as we witnessed two rulers in the short frame of nine years. Did Hastin take advantage of this and asserted his independence? But if he asserted his independence then he would have been subdued again as Budhagupta enjoyed a good rule over a vast land as his epigraphs are found at Eran.

So, if there is any question of independence then it must have been in the time of the father or grand-father of Hastin. But there is no epigraph found of Hastin's ancestors found which probably suggests that his ancestors were not holding much influence to issue grants of their own. Hastin, though still a feudatory under the Guptas, held sufficient position and influence to issue his own grants. It may be a possibility that he helped Budhagupta in reasserting the Gupta dominion over the land and in return acquired this influence. But all the ancestors of him are referred with same title as of his, Maharaja. It may be said that though the titles are same but what matters is influence and power you hold. Its like interpret a statement the way it suits to your theory. One statement you say that these titles are of much important and another statement you say what matters is power and influence, isn't it funny?

One thing I may say that during the time of Budhagupta, it seems strange if Hastin was ruling independently in a region lying within the boundaries of the Gupta ruler. Is there a possibility that Budhagupta lost some part of his land during his reign only? Eran inscription of Budhagupta is dated in the Gupta Era year 165. Eran also has an inscription of another Gupta ruler, Bhanugupta, dated in year 191 of the Gupta Era. Maharaja Hastin ruled between year 156 and 199 of the Gupta Era. In all his grants he did not mention any of his overlord. In such a case the possibility of losing a region by Budhagupta to Hastin is ruled out.

But these are just theories, the truth is that Hastin did not mention any overlord and we have to believe what's there in an epigraph until and unless we have a contradicting evidence. The last possibility is geographical aspect of these two kingdoms. The Guptas were ruling from Pataliputra (present Patna) and Budhagupta would have been ruling from there only. His inscription is found at Eran, which is near Sagar. Hastin's epigraphs are found at Khoh, Jabalpur and Majhagawan, all situated near Jabalpur. If you look at India's map, a straight line drawn from Patna to Sagae will pass through Satna.

But are the boundaries of kingdoms are carved in straight lines, the answer is no. See current map of India, its boundary is all zig-zag, isn't it? Then what used to mark boundaries between the kingdoms in those times, the answer is river, hill, forest or similar things. Kaveri, in South India, has been the boundary between the Pallavas and the Cholas for a long time. But what it would be in our case here. I think it might be some hill as rivers are scarce in this region. A hill, Parasmania is present in between Jabalpur and Satna. Also we have one such inscription, to be discussed later in the history of Uchchakalpas, which supports this hypothesis.

From all the above discussions, though we have many reasons to believe that Hastin might be ruling under the dominion of the Guptas, still, as he did not mention his overlord in any of his grant so we much accept that he was ruling as an independent king. M S Sampath, while editing epigraphs of Madhya Pradesh, writes that Parivrajaka rulers took advantage of Skandagupta's death in 467 CE and asserted their independence. This would have happened during the rule of Hastin or his father. Samkshobha seems to their last ruler, they might have been lost under the turmoil created after the Huna invasion.

History of the Uchchakalpa Dynasty - The Uchchakalpas were ruling from Uchchakalpa which would be an ancient name of Unchehara town. This dynasty was contemporary of the Parivrajaka. Though they did not mention the era in which their grants are dated, however an inscription of Maharaja Hastin and Maharaja Sarvanatha found at Bhumara proves their contemporaneity. Bumhara was the boundary line between these two kingdoms as per that inscription.

The Uchchakalpas also did not mention any of the Gupta king in their grants which suggests that they also asserted their independence similar to the Parivrajakas. Their end would also be in similar fashion as of the Parivrajaka, due to Huna insurgency. Interestingly, both the dynasties started at the same time and ended also in near same time.

Many of their grants are discovered at Khoh, about five grants. Their other epigraphs are discovered at Karitalai and Sohawal. Epigraphs of only two kings are found, two of Jayanatha and five Sarvanatha. The genealogy of these kings is as follows:

Name of King	Name of Wife
Maharaja Oghadeva	Mahadevi Kumaradevi
Maharaja Kumaradeva	Jayasvamini
Maharaja Jayasvamin	Ramadevi
Maharaja Vyaghra	Ajjhitadevi
Maharaja Jayanatha	Murundasvamini
Maharaja Sharvanatha

The earliest date of Jayanatha is year 174 of the Gupta Era. He issued another grant in year 177 of the Gupta Era. The earliest grant of Sarvanatha is in year 189 of the Gupta Era and his last grant is dated in year 214 of the same era. With these dates, and applying average 20 years reign to all ancestors, we come to the below chronology

Maharaja Oghadeva	409-429 CE
Maharaja Kumaradeva	430-450 CE
Maharaja Jayasvamin	451-471 CE
Maharaja Vyaghra	472-492 CE
Maharaja Jayanatha	493-507 CE
Maharaja Sharvanatha	508-533 CE

General Epigraphs – A total of eight plates are discovered at Khoh, three of the Parivrajaka dynasty and five of the Uchchakalpa dynasty.

Khoh copper plate of Maharaja Hastin – published in Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum Vol III (Fleet’s edition) - dated in year 156 probably of the Gupta Era (475-476 CE) – Invocation to Mahadeva (Shiva). Mentions that 156 years have been passed in the enjoyment of the sovereignty by the Gupta kings. It further tells that Maharaja Hastin, of Parivrajaka family, grants a village of Vasuntarashandika to a Brahmana, Gopasvamin, of Vajasaneya-Madhyamadina shakha and Kautsa gotra along with Bhavasvamin, Sandhyaputra, Divakardatta, Bhaskaradatta and Suryadatta. A verse from Mahabharata is quoted which mentions the duty of a king to protected the granted land, granted by him or by his ancestors. Maharaja Hastin’s genealogy is given as, Maharaja Damodara -> Maharaja Prabhanjana -> Maharaja Devadhya -> Maharaja Hastin – written by Suryadatta, the great-grandson of Amatya Vakra, the grandson of Bhogika Amatya Naradatta, the son of Bhogika Ravidatta – dutaka is Bhagraha
Khoh copper plate of Maharaja Hastin – published in Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum Vol III (Fleet’s edition) - dated in year 163 probably of the Gupta Era (482-483 CE) – Invocation to Mahadeva (Shiva). Mentions that 163 years have been passed in the enjoyment of the sovereignty by the Gupta kings. It further tells that Parivrajaka Maharaja Hastin grants an agrahara (village) of Korparika to a Brahmana, Devasvamin, son of Agnisvamin, of Bharadvaja gotra and Vajasaneya shakha along with few other Brahmanas. A verse from Mahabharata is quoted which mentions the duty of a king to protected the granted land, granted by him or by his ancestors. Maharaja Hastin’s genealogy is given as, Maharaja Damodara -> Maharaja Prabhanjana -> Maharaja Devadhya -> Maharaja Hastin – written by Mahasandhivigrahika Suryadatta, the great-grandson of Amatya Vakra, the grandson of Bhogika Amatya Naradatta, the son of Bhogika Ravidatta – dutaka is Bhagraha
Khoh copper plate of Maharaja Jayanatha – published in Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum Vol III (Fleet’s edition) - dated in year 177 probably of the Gupta Era (496-497 CE) – Hail from Uchchakalpa. The object of the grant is to record a donation of a village with all related taxes to the god in the custody of Divira Sarvavadha of Shasataneya gotra and his son Bhagvata Ganga and latter’s sons Rankabota and Ajagaradasa. A verse from Mahabharata is also quoted which tell the duty of a king to protect the grant made by him or his ancestors. Maharaja Jayanatha’s genealogy is given as, Maharaja Oghadeva married to Mahadevi Kumaradevi -> Maharaja Kumaradeva married to Jayasvamini -> Maharaja Jayasvamin married to Ramadevi -> Maharaja Vyaghra married to Mahadevi Ajjhitadevi -> Maharaja Jayanatha – written by samdhivigrahika Gallu, the grandson of Amatya Phalgudatta, the son of Bhogika Varahadinna – dutaka is Uparika Dikshita
Khoh copper plate of Maharaja Sharvanatha – undated - Hail from Uchchakalpa. The object of the grant is to record a donation of a half-village of Dhavashandika with all related taxes to Chhodugomika. Maharaja Sharvanatha’s genealogy is given as, Maharaja Oghadeva married to Mahadevi Kumaradevi -> Maharaja Kumaradeva married to Jayasvamini -> Maharaja Jayasvamin married to Ramadevi -> Maharaja Vyaghra married to Mahadevi Ajjhitadevi -> Maharaja Jayanatha married to Mahadevi Murundasvamini -> Maharaja Sharvanatha
Khoh copper plate of Maharaja Sharvanatha – published in Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum Vol III (Fleet’s edition) - dated in year 193 probably of the Gupta Era (512-513 CE) - Hail from Uchchakalpa. The object of the grant is to record a division and then donation of a village, Ashramaka, into four parts, two of which belong to Vishnunandin and another one to a merchant, Saktinaga, and his son Svaminaga and fourth and the last one to Kumaranaga and Skandanaga. A verse from Mahabharata is quoted which mentions the duty of a king to protected the granted land, granted by him or by his ancestors. Maharaja Sharvanatha’s genealogy is given as, Maharaja Oghadeva married to Mahadevi Kumaradevi -> Maharaja Kumaradeva married to Jayasvamini -> Maharaja Jayasvamin married to Ramadevi -> Maharaja Vyaghra married to Mahadevi Ajjhitadevi -> Maharaja Jayanatha married to Mahadevi Murundasvamini -> Maharaja Sharvanatha - written by Mahasamdhivigrahika Manoratha, the grandson of Amatya Phalgudatta, son of Varahadinna – dutaka is Mahabaladhikrita Shivagupta
Khoh copper plate of Maharaja Sharvanatha – published in Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum Vol III (Fleet’s edition) - dated in year 197 probably of the Gupta Era (516-517 CE) - Hail from Uchchakalpa. The object of the grant is not known as the plate on which it was written is missing. A verse from Mahabharata is quoted which mentions the duty of a king to protected the granted land, granted by him or by his ancestors – written by Mahasamdhivigrahika Manoratha, the grandson of Amatya Phalgudatta, son of Varahadinna – dutaka is Mahabaladhikrita Shivagupta
Khoh copper plate of Maharaja Samkshobha – published in Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum Vol III (Fleet’s edition) - dated in year 209 probably of the Gupta Era (528-529 CE) – Invocation to Vasudeva (Vishnu). Mentions that 209 years have been passed in the enjoyment of the sovereignty by the Gupta kings. It further tells that Parivrajaka Maharaja Samkshobha grants a half-village, Opani, at the request of Chhodugomin for the purpose of worship of divine Pishtapuri, a temple built by Chhodugomin. A verse from Mahabharata is quoted which mentions the duty of a king to protected the granted land, granted by him or by his ancestors. Maharaja Samkshobha’s genealogy is given as, Maharaja Damodara -> Maharaja Prabhanjana -> Maharaja Devadhya -> Maharaja Hastin -> Maharaja Samkshobha. Maharaja Hastin is mentioned to be governing the kingdom of Dahala, which came to him by inheritance, together with all countries included in the eighteen forest kingdoms – written by Ishvaradasa, the grandson of Jivita, the son of Bhujamgadasa
Khoh copper plate of Maharaja Sarvanatha – published in Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum Vol III (Fleet’s edition) - dated in year 214 probably of the Gupta Era (533-534 CE) - Hail from Uchchakalpa. The object of the grant is to record a donation of two villages, Vyaghrapallika and Kacharapallika, to Pulindabhata for the purpose of the worship of the divine goddess Pishtapurikadevi at the temple which was built by Chhodugomin at Manapura. A verse from Mahabharata is quoted which mentions the duty of a king to protected the granted land, granted by him or by his ancestors. Maharaja Sharvanatha’s genealogy is given as, Maharaja Oghadeva married to Mahadevi Kumaradevi -> Maharaja Kumaradeva married to Jayasvamini -> Maharaja Jayasvamin married to Ramadevi -> Maharaja Vyaghra married to Mahadevi Ajjhitadevi -> Maharaja Jayanatha married to Mahadevi Murundasvamini -> Maharaja Sharvanatha - written by Mahasamdhivigrahika Natha, the grandson of Amatya Phalgudatta, son of Varahadinna – dutaka is Dhritisvamika

Monuments – There is no monument of architectural interest at Khoh. However if you have somehow reached here and wants to see something, you may visit the followings.

Ataria Mound

Ataria -This mound was reported by Cunningham in his reports and he refers it as Atariya or Ataritekra. Now a days it is known as Ataria among the locals. Cunningham mentions that it stands on the south bank of the Barua Nala. I am not sure about the location of this Barua Nala, however present mound is located in between cultivated fields. It was 29 feet high at his time however now it is not this high. Cunningham states that the temple, which was standing there, would have been ruined in a fire as he found that whole of the statues were split into small fragments, such as could not readily have done with hammer.

The temple was dedicated to Vishnu as he found a part of a colossal statue of Narasimha and Varaha. He also found various fragments of various Vaishnava symbols like discus and shell. The large sizes of these fragments suggest that there would have been a Vishnu image of at least twice the natural height.

Varaha

Varaha Statue -This Varaha image was excavated by Cunningham during his excavations. He mentions that there was a Naga image between the Varaha legs who is canopied by five hoods and holds out two vessels in his hands below the Varaha's snout. This image was in Sagar museum for a long time till the Municipality of Unchehara requested the statue to be sent to their office so that they are reminded about their heritage.

At present this statue is installed in a high platform in the compound of the Municipality office. As per a plaque there, this installation was carried in 1980. The Naga, reported, by Cunningham is no more there. It is 5.5 feet in length and about 4 feet in height. Unlike other Varaha image found in Madhya Pradesh, this statue is simple and devoid of any miniature figure on its body.

How to Reach – Khoh is very near to Unchehara which is on Maihar-Satna state highway no 11. However you cannot locate the mound without any help from a local. Best would be that you contact the municipality office at Uchehara, as I did, and they will find a guy who can take you to Ataria. Uchehara has a small railways station, Satna is the nearest considerable railway station and Jabalpur is the nearest airport.

References:

Agrawala, V S (1977). Gupta Art. Prithivi Prakashan. New Delhi.
Cunningham, Alexander (1879). Report of a Tour in the Central Province in 1873-74-75-76 (Vol IX). Archaeological Survey of India. New Delhi.
Deva, Krishna (1969). Temples of North India. National Book Trust. New Delhi. ISBN 9788123719702.
Harle, J C (1974). Gupta Sculpture. Munshiram Manoharlal. New Delhi. ISBN 8121506417
Mishra, S N (1992). Gupta Art and Architecture. Agam Kala Prakashan. New Delhi.
Rai, Uday Narayan (2006). Bhartiya Kala (in Hindi). Lokbharati Prakashan. Allahabad. ISBN 8180310973
Sampath, M D (2001). Epigraphs of Madhya Pradesh. Archaeological Survey of India. New Delhi.

Tigawa - A Hidden Jewel

2011-07-11T18:23:00.001+05:30

Introduction – Tigawa is a small village which was one a large town with a fort named Jhanjhangarh. The literal meaning of Tigowa, as it is referred by Cunningham, is ‘three villages’, the other two are neighboring villages, Amgowa and Deori. Tigawa was located on an ancient route connecting Bharhut to Tripuri via Tigawa and Rupnath.

Alexander Cunningham visted Tigawa in 1873 and reported the antiquities of the town. He mentions a rectangular mound of 250 feet long and 120 feet wide which was entirely covered with large blocks of cut-stones. These stones were parts of ruins of various temples, all fallen except one which was in good state of preservation. He was told that the mound was utterly destroyed by a railway contractor who collected all the squared stones in a heap together to be used in railway construction. It is mentioned that two hundred carts were used to bring this heap to the foot of hill. This rapacious and destructive activity was stopped by an order from the Deputy Commissioner of Jabalpur but damage was done till that time.

He counted basements of at least thirty six temples on this mound. The temples were in varying sizes from 4 feet square to 15 feet square. The temples of modest size, 4 to 6 feet square, were covered on three sides and open on east. Temples of medium size, 7 to 10 feet square, were covered on all sides with a doorway on the eastern sides, whereas the large temples, from 10 to 15 feet square, were having an additional portico in front. All these temple, which ruins are only left, were having a shikhara with amalaka on top. No Buddhist or Jaina antiquity was found by Cunningham.

It may assumed that the religious activity witnessed a tremendous growth at Tigawa after the construction of the first temple, which is the same one which is standing at present as well. That earliest temple is dated to the Gupta period, hence all the other temples would have been built after this one only. It may be also assumed that after the disintegration of the Gupta empire, rulers of small kingdoms were forced to focus over a small region for all their activities and Tigawa was one such center. It would be hard to say in which time all these additional shrines were constructed however as the region was under influence of the Kalchuris for a long period, these activities may be assigned to them.

Monuments – The monument complex at Tigawa contains ruins of about 36 temple as counted by Cunningham. However only one temple is standing at present which is described in detail below.

Kankali Devi Temple

Kankali Devi Temple – The original temple was constituted of a sanctum and an open portico supported on four pillars. At a later stage, the portico was covered with walls containing panels and an addition extension in front of the portico. The sanctum is 12.75 feet square outside and about 8 feet square inside. It is covered with a flat roof. Doorway of the sanctum is done in T-shaped style with over-hanging lintel beyond the door-jambs. Foliage decoration is found on two bands of this doorway. Two pilasters, one on either side, are executed in the typical Gupta order, topped with images of Ganga and Yamuna where both are shown plucking a fruit from a tree. There are seven square bosses on a lintel above the door frame. Cunningham suggests that these bosses might be the representation of the ends of horizontal beams as found in the wooden architecture. An image of Narasimha is placed inside the sanctum.


Pillar abacus

Sanctum door

A portico in front is supported on four pillars which are designed in typical Gupta order. Square at base, followed by octagonal and then sixteen sides shaft and then circular at last. This shaft is topped with a purna-kalasha (vase-of-plenty) capital. Above this capital is a square abacus with two lions on each face, seated side by side and a tree in between. Lions on corners share their heads similar to the arrangement seen in Assyrian sculptures. Though all the pillars are same, difference can be noticed in the tree, which is placed in between the lions, on its various faces. On some face it is a mango tree then on others it is palm tree or some unidentifiable trees. There are two chaitya-arch bosses on each face of the lower part of the capital. There is head of a lion or a man inside the arches.

Sheshashai Vishnu

Chamunda

Cunningham suggests that open portico was later converted into a closed mandapa. At the same time, various sculptural panels were also inserted in the side walls of this mandapa. He mentions four such panels however I found only two panels at the site which are adorned in the south wall of the mandapa. One panel depicts Chamunda or Kankali Devi which probably gave the present name of the temple. Another panel shows Vishnu resting on the coils of Adi-shesha in his Sheshashai icon. Another portico of quite a different style was also added at later stages. There is a sculptural panel on this portico which iconography is difficult to understand. The panel shows a seated mendicant with elongated ears and wearing a large crown over his head. The posture of the mendicant is usually seen in Buddhist and Jainism sculptures however I am not very sure of its religious nature.

Though no Gupta inscription is found on this temple or a among the ruins at this site, this temple is dated to the Gupta period by all scholars on the basis of the similarities, which we discussed above, with other Gupta temples. In this situation, the temple may be dated to fourth or fifth century CE.

Inscriptions - There is a pilgrim's record on one face of the pillar.
1. On a face of a pillar - undated, dated to eighth century CE on paleographic study - in Sanskrit language - the inscription mentions about the visit of Uma Deva of Kanyakubja, son of Samanya Bhatta, to pay his devotion at the temple of Sitabhadra.

Devi Temple

Devi Temple – This is a live temple at site and probably the largest one. Only the ornamental torana has survived from the original temple which is about 4 feet wide. Cunningham estimated that the temple would have been about 19.5 feet square. There is an image of Vishnu of later period inside the temple. Various incarnations of Vishnu are depicted around the main image.

How to Reach – Tigawa is situated near Bahuriband at a distance of about 5-6 kms. From Jabalpur, take NH7 which goes to Katni. After crossing Sihora there is turn towards Bahuriband. Tigawa is on Bahuriband-Bakal road, state highway 31 after crossing Bahuriband. Tigawa complex is on main road only and road condition was very good when I visited the site.

References:

Agrawala, V S (1977). Gupta Art. Prithivi Prakashan. New Delhi.
Bhandarkar, D R (1981). Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum Vol III. Archaeological Survey of India. New Delhi.
Brown, Percy (1959). Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindu Periods). D B Taraporevala. Mumbai.
Cunningham, Alexander (1879). Report of a Tour in the Central Province in 1873-74-75-76 (Vol IX). Archaeological Survey of India. New Delhi.
Deva, Krishna (1969). Temples of North India. National Book Trust. New Delhi. ISBN 9788123719702.
Harle, J C (1974). Gupta Sculpture. Munshiram Manoharlal. New Delhi. ISBN 8121506417
Michell, George (1989). The Penguin Guide to the Monuments of India Volume I: Buddhist, Jain, Hindu. London. Penguin Books. ISBN 9780140081442
Mishra, S N (1992). Gupta Art and Architecture. Agam Kala Prakashan. New Delhi.
Rai, Uday Narayan (2006). Bhartiya Kala (in Hindi). Lokbharati Prakashan. Allahabad. ISBN 8180310973
Sampath, M D (2001). Epigraphs of Madhya Pradesh. Archaeological Survey of India. New Delhi.

Eran - A Lost Monumental Legacy

2011-07-10T15:33:00.005+05:30

Eran - A Lost Monumental Legacy

Introduction - Eran (ऐरण) is a small village situated at the south bank of river Bina. It is surrounded on three sides by this river. This town is referred as Erakina or Erakanya in epigraphs and coins and seems to have held an important position in olden times. Eran was located on an ancient route connecting Pataliputra with Mathura passing through Vidisha. The earliest main route joined Kausambi (Allahabad district) to the south-eastern sea coast via Bharhut, Amarkantak, Sarabhapur (Malhar) and the Dandaka forest. The other main route from Kausambi went in south-western direction passing through Bharhut, Airikina (Eran), Vidisha, Ujjain, Mahishmati (Maheswar) to Bhrigukachchha (Broach) on Arabian Sea coast. This prime location helped the town to acquire a commendable position in those times.

Eran was annexed into Gupta empire by Samudragupta when he annexed many kingdoms of Aryavarta into Gupta dominion. Before this annexation Airikina was the capital of eastern Malwa for a long time. Tumain inscription mentions Ghatotkachagupta as a governor of Airikina appointed by Kumaragupta I. It would have acted as a buffer state between the Huns and the Guptas when Huns started extending their kingdom towards east hence marking it as the easternmost boundary for the Huns.

Alexander Cunningham visited Eran in 1874-75 and reported its antiquity. He found many coins during his excavations. Inscribed coins in his booty pointed out the name of the town as Erakanya. Punch-marked coins were the most ancient ones found here by Cunningham.

General Epigraphs -
1. Stone inscription of Samudragupta - Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum Vol III - written in Sanskrit - undated - This stone inscription was found by Alexander Cunningham near the Varaha temple - The inscription mentions the Gupta king Samudragupta who is compared with Dhanada (Kubera) and Antaka (Yama) in joy and wrath respectively. A mention of setting up a temple of Janardana at Airikina to augment his own glories.
2. Stone pillar inscription of Bhanugupta - Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum Vol III - written in Sanskrit - dated in year 191 of the Gupta Era (510-11 CE) - it is found on a pillar which was turned into a Shivalinga and found by Cunningham - The inscription does not mention any reign of any particular king but mentions a certain Bhanugupta who might be not be sovereign but some king of the Gupta family. The object is non-sectarian and mentions that in company of Bhanugupta, who was a great ruler, his chieftain Goparaja came to Eran and fought a battle with the Maitras, and that Goparaja was killed, and that his wife accompanied him, by cremating herself on his funeral pyre, apparently near the place where the pillar was setup. This is probably the earliest record of Sati tradition.

Monuments – All the monuments of principal antiquities are located within one complex. There are remains of four-five temples, three main temples standing in single line in north to south direction. During my visit there, I met Mr. Rajendra Pratap Rajput, the caretaker of this complex. He told me that this complex is not receiving proper care from the concerned authorities. He was very enthusiastic about making this complex a better tourist place if concerned authorities give little more attention towards this.

Pillar (484 AD) – This sandstone pillar was setup by two brothers, Matri Vishnu and Dhanya Vishnu, in the reign of the Gupta emperor Budhagupta. Total height of the column is 43 feet which included 5 feet high statues on top of the column.

Cunningham describes the dimensions of the column as follows. It is placed on a pedestal, 13 feet square. The lower part is a 2 feet 10.25 inches square and 20 feet in height. The shaft becomes octagonal above this to a height of 8 feet. Above this is placed the capital which lower part is a reeded bell of 3.5 feet high and 3 feet in diameter. Above this capital is an abacus of 1.5 feet and topped with a square block of 3 feet height.

On top of this square block are two statues with a wheel in between them. Early scholars suggested that it could be an image of Vishnu however later studies revealed that these are the images of Garuda who is holding a snake in his hands. Garuda-stambha (Garuda pillars) were very common in those times as Garuda-dhvaja was the royal emblem of the Guptas.

Inscription -
1. Pillar inscription of Budhagupta - Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum Vol III - written in Sanskrit -dated in year 165 of the Gupta Era (484-85 CE) - The inscription opens with a verse in praise of Vishnu whose ensign is Garuda. Then we are told that when one hundred and sixty five years had elapsed and when Budhagupta was the lord of the earth and when Surasmichandra was a protector of people protecting the province intervening between the Kalindi (Yamuna) and Narmada, this dhvja-stambha of Bhagwan Janardana was caused to be erected by the Maharaja Matrivishnu and his younger brother Dhanyavishnu. He was the son of Harivishnu, grandson of Varunavishnu and above all the great-grandson of Indravishnu, the Brahmana sage, who was the head of the Maitrayaniya scholl of Yajurveda and performed sacrifices.

Varaha Temple – This Varaha is probably the most remarkable feature of this complex. It is about 14 feet long, 5 feet broad and 11 feet high. It was setup by Dhanya Vishnu, same person who is mentioned in the inscription of the pillar above, in the reign of a Hun king, Toramana. This Varaha would have been under a roofed enclosure whose walls are fallen now.

Cunningham gives the dimension of the temple from the ruins of walls and pillars. He tells that the temple would have been 42.5 feet in length and 20.5 feet in breadth. Pillars supporting a mandapa, which were found lying in front of this Varaha platform, were 10 feet in height as told by Cunningham. The pillars were square at top and bottom with an octagonal shaft in between. Both square parts were adorned with vase of plenty or purna-kalsha which is a typical Gupta element.

Whole body of the Varaha is covered with miniature sculptures of various gods and sages. Bhu-devi is shown hanging to his tusk. There are many similar Varaha statues found at many places in Madhya Pradesh like Khajurao, Bilhari, Majhauli etc. The foundation of this icon was probably set here at Eran only.

Inscription -
1. Inscription on the neck of the boar - Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum (Fleet's edition) Vol III - written in 8 lines in Sanskrit in Brahmi script - dated in the first reign of Toramana - The object of the inscription is to record the building of the temple in which the current Varaha image stands, by Dhanyavishnu, the younger brother of the deceased Maharaja Matrivishnu, same person who erected the above pillar.

Narasimha Temple – This temple was probably only consisted of a sanctum and mandapa, former 12.5 feet long and about 9 feet wide. The mandapa was supported on four pillars with wider inter-column distance as seen in other Gupta temples like at Sanchi and Tigawa. None of the pillars have survived except their chiseled spots on the plinth.

A damaged statue of Narasimha is put on the plinth. It would have been a 7 feet high statue in its original glory. At present this statute is in two pieces, feet and body separate.

Vishnu Temple – This is most complete temple in this complex with intact doorway. This oblong temple would have been a 32.5 feet by 13.5 feet shrine. The interior dimensions would have been 18 feet by 6 feet as told by Cunningham. Two mandapa pillars, 13 feet high, are still standing with their corresponding pilasters however walls between these have no more survived.

An image of Vishnu, 13 feet high, is placed inside the sanctum. The sanctum doorway is elaborately carved however it seems that there has been some mistaken in reconstruction of it from its ruins. It is not in T-shaped style which was seen in earlier and even later Gupta temples. River goddesses occupy their position at the bottom of the door jambs instead of their regular top position during many other Gupta temples. Dvarpalas are adorned on the pilasters on either side of the door.

Cunningham found many ruins of various temples in this complex. He also found a Varaha statue in a house of a local. This statue is not in Sagar museum and is considered as one of the best Varaha representation in his anthropomorphic icon.

Food and Accommodation - Eran is a small village, you will not find any place to stay and eat. Mandi Bamora is the nearest big town, however that also does not offer good staying options. Best would be that you stay at Sanchi and visit Eran as a day trip from there. Mandi Bamora railway station and nearby area gives some options for food.

How to reach – Mandi Bamora is a railway station on Bhopal-Bina railway line. Many trains stop at this station including Chattishgarh Express (8237), Vindhyachal Express (1272) and Amritsar Express (1057) among others. Eran is about 15 km far from here on eastern side. You can either ask some auto rickshaw or take lift from people going towards that village. There is no direct bus to Eran, buses going to Khurai will drop you at the crossing to Eran, from where it is about 5 kms.

References -

Agrawala, V S (1977). Gupta Art. Prithivi Prakashan. New Delhi.
Bhandarkar, D R (1981). Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum Vol III. Archaeological Survey of India. New Delhi.
Brown, Percy (1959). Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindu Periods). D B Taraporevala. Mumbai.
Cunningham, Alexander (1880). Report of Tours in the Bundelkhand and Malwa in 1874-75-76-77 (Vol X). Archaeological Survey of India. New Delhi.
Deva, Krishna (1969). Temples of North India. National Book Trust. New Delhi. ISBN 9788123719702.
Harle, J C (1974). Gupta Sculpture. Munshiram Manoharlal. New Delhi. ISBN 8121506417
Michell, George (1989). The Penguin Guide to the Monuments of India Volume I: Buddhist, Jain, Hindu. London. Penguin Books. ISBN 9780140081442
Mishra, S N (1992). Gupta Art and Architecture. Agam Kala Prakashan. New Delhi.
Sampath, M D (2001). Epigraphs of Madhya Pradesh. Archaeological Survey of India. New Delhi.
राय, उदय नारायण (2006). भारतीय कला. लोकभारती प्रकाशन. इलाहाबाद. ISBN 8180310973

Vidisha - At the Confluence of Bes and Betwa

2011-07-09T14:37:00.004+05:30

Introduction - Vidisha or Besnagar, as it is called in the Pali scriptures, is situated at the junction of three rivers, Bes, Betwa and Choprel. Choprel is a small branch of Betwa which separates from the main stream and runs for about 1000 feet to meet again with the main stream. These three rivers form the three boundaries of ancient Besnagar. The earliest reference of it is found in Ramayana, where it is stated that Shatrughna's son Shatrughati was placed in charge of Vidisha. In Brahmanical religious observance again, the place is called Bhadravati, the residence of Yuvanashva who supplied the famous horse to Yudhishthira during his ashvamedha sacrifice.

A local tradition assigns Raja Rukmangada as the founder of Wessanagara. He is said to have neglected his wife for an apsara named Visva Mohini. He built Nolakha gardens for this apsara and founded this city on her name. A festival of the Rukmangada Ekadashi is still celebrated in this town. The legend behind the festival is that one day the chariot of Vishnu was stopped by a thorn bush. It can only be removed by a person who had fasted on the Ekadashi festival. By accident a telin (oil merchant’s wife) who had fought with her husband and left house without eating anything arrived at the spot. She removed the bush and in return asked Vishnu to take her to heaven. Vishnu granted her request and asked her to hold the wheel. At the same time Raja Rukman came there with his retinue. He also hold the wheel and his retinue followed him and hold onto different parts of the chariot. The city thus deserted, was turned upside down and has since remained a heap of ruins. Interesting legend, isn’t it?

Emperor Ashoka The Great, still a prince aged 18, was appointed as a viceroy by his father, Bindusaar, at Ujjain. He halted at Besnagar for some time on his way to Pataliputra to assume his position as the governor of Ujjain. Devi, a banker's daughter of Vidisha of the Sakya clan, a queen of Ashoka was from Vidisha only. Mahavamsa mentions that before sailing for Ceylon Mahendra, son of Ashoka, came to visit his mother at Besnagar. The mother took her son to a " Chaitya Giri " which, by popular belief was none other than the Sanchi Stupa.

Vidisha was a floursihing town during the reign of the Guptas. Three Jaina images found at Vidisha are sculpted during the time of the Gupta king Ramagupta. These images are the earliest art specimen of the Guptas which have come down to us. The town would also have witnessed the march of the victorious Chandragupta II when he was on his mission to tackle the Sakas.

Cunningham visited Besnagar in 1875 and 1877 and reported its antiquities. He found ruins of various rails and other Buddhist artifacts which were adorning some stupa at some time probably. These Buddhist remains suggest that the town was a flourishing city once. As Ashoka visited this town so there is no doubt that it held an important position at his time and it retained that importance after his time as well. Cunningham also found various coins, about 90, 6 out of which were old punch marked coins.

On the destruction of Besnagar, sometime after 7th century AD, a new town sprang up on the Eastern bank of the River. This new town was known as Bhailaswamin or Bhillaswamin, the name of the place was later corrupted to Bhilsa or Bhelsa. The name Bhelsa appears to have probably been obtained on account of the famous Suryamandir dedicated to God Sun.

Later this region remained under Mughals, Marathas and Peshwas and thereafter became a part of the Sciendia's Gwalior State and was a tehsil of Isagarh pargana. In 1904 Vidisha was raised to a district having two tehsils of Vidisha and Basoda till the formation of Madhya Bharat in 1948. The district was enlarged in 1949 by the merger of small states of Kurwai. At the same time, the town and the district were renamed as Vidisha.

Monuments: I was not able to visit the monuments which are located within the limits of the main town due to shortage of time. However there are important monuments situated very near to the main town which I visited and documenting here.

1. Udaigiri Caves – Located about six km from Vidisha town, Udaigiri caves are the rock-cut caves on a sandstone hill. This sandstone ridge is about 2 km in length and oriented in north-west to south-east direction. The highest point is about 350 feet high at its north-west end. A passage is cut in its middle where it is very much depressed.

The name of the site in ancient times is not directly attested. Udayagiri, literally the 'mountain of the sunrise', first appears in inscriptions of the eleventh century and it is now the name attached to a small village at the foot of the hill.

The caves of Udaigiri are an exquisite illustration of the local art form. J C Harle mentions that although these caves are of little importance architecturally but it is here that the elaborated caved doorways in the Gupta style first appear. It is here that we see, for the first time, the celebrated Gupta scroll-and-leaf decoration. All the caves are Hindu except a single Jaina cave on the half-way up the north-east end of this hill.

Some historians have suggested that the Iron Pillar at Delhi originally stood at Udaigiri as an inscription in one of the Udaigiri caves states that the devotee who repaired the shrine 'bows forever to the feet of Vishnu. The inscription on that pillar mentions that it was standing at Vishnupadagiri, the 'hill of Vishnu's foot-prints'. However this identification is not widely accepted as Vishnupadagiri is identified with Gurdaspur region in Punjab.

Cell excavations

Cave 1 - This is probably the only surviving shrine of this unique style in which it is constructed. It is termed as false cave temple by Alexander Cunningham because it is formed utilizing a natural rock ledge as the roof, supported over the walls on two sides, hence making the cell for a sanctum. The sanctum thus formed is a 7 feet by 6 femt rectangle. A 7 feet square mandapa, supported on four pillars and two pilasters, is constructed in front of this sanctum. There is no platform built to support the pillars as these are resting directly over the rock. Roof of the mandapa is supported on architraves which are resting over these pillars and pilasters.

The doorframe has three bands where the last band is topped with a figure of Ganga and Yamuna as evident by the sockets provided for these. However these figures are no more there. At the back wall of the cave, a statue was carved out however only outline of this statue has survived as it was chiseled off sometime back. This cave is not accessible at present, as told by the complex keepers however I am not very sure about this.

Ganesha

Cave 2 - It is just a small cavity, not much deep, containing a Ganesha image. The image can be identified by the remaining signs of a trunk and pot belly, as nothing much is remained of this image as though.

Cave No 3

Cave 3 (Cave 2 in Cunningham's report) -The cave is about 8 feet long and 6 feet broad. There is no mandapa now however two pilasters are seen in front wall of the cave which suggests that there might have been a mandapa in front of this cave. The door of the cave is carved in a ‘T’ fashion which is usually seen in wooden doors. In this ‘T’ style, a part of lintel is left hanging on either side beyond the door jambs. This feature, which is inappropriate or unconventional for rock architecture, probably suggests that wood was in use prior to the usage of stone or rock.

The door has three bands but none is decorated. A horizontal cutting over the door is probably to support the roof of the mandapa. There is a statue of Kartikeya carved on the back wall of the cell. He is carved in very bold relief. He carries a spear and probably a cock in his hands.

Cave No 4

Cave 4 (Cave 3 of Cunningham's report) - It is named as Veena cave by Cunningham because of the presence of a statue of a man, on the doorway lintel, playing Veena, an Indian musical instrument. The cell is about 14 feet long and 12 feet broad. There is a water channel in the plinth and in the floor of the chamber leading to a hole that pierces in the cave wall.

An ornamental doorway, 6 feet high and 3 feet wide, is carved at the entrance. There are four bands on each side of door which are ornamented with floral designs. There are three lintels over the door which are separated by a significant depression which runs across the jambs. On the second lintel are five cusped bosses with small circular panels each having a figure inside. Not much can be drawn from these bosses now but at the time of Cunningham it was in better state of preservation. He tells that the boss on left has a male figure playing veena, and that of the extreme right has a male figure playing sarangi. The middle boss has figure of lion, while two bosses, on either side of that, have a figure of crocodile. There are two dvarpalas flanked on either side of the doorway, however the images are quire worn. Two pilasters are seen beyond the dvarpalas which are square at bottom, change to octagon above and then into sixteen sided shaft. There were figures of Ganga and Yamuna at the time of Cunningham, however these figures are missing now.

There would have been a mandapa in front of this cave as remains of pillars in front are still visible. Cunningham mentions that there would have been two large pillars on front corresponding to the two pilasters on the rock face and two small pillars on sides. On the left of the cave is another open cave, 11 feet long and 7 feet broad, at the right angle to Veena cave. There are eight figures of goddesses caved, six sitting in front and two on either side. Cunningham identifies these with ashta-shakti, eight female energies.

Mukhalinga inside cave 4

An exquisite mukha-linga is carved out of mother rock inside this sanctum. The lings rests over a platform which is also hewn out of rock. This single faced Shivalinga is one of the rare artifact of Indian art. A face is carved on the lingam, with graceful and charming countenance. His hair are bound in a tuft by a ring, while his tresses are flowing down on either side of his face. The arrangement of the hair recalls the story of how Śiva broke the fall of the River Gaṅgā as the waters came down from heaven. There is third eye in middle of his temple. He wears a necklace in his neck and earrings in his ears.

Cave No 5 - Varaha Panel

Cave 5 (Cave 4 of Cunningham's report) – This is the second largest cave at the site and measures 22 feet in length, 13 feet in height and 3.5 feet deep. The whole of the back wall is covered with a colossal figure, about 13 feet high, of Vishnu as Varaha, the boar incarnation. His left foot is resting above the coil of a snake who is seeking forgiveness from Varaha joining both is hands. Goddess Bhu-devi is resting on his left shoulder clinging to his tusk with her one hand. His nuzzle is caressing the face of the goddess who is petrified with the course of events.

There are many figures carved on either side of Varaha. Brahma and Shiva riding over Nandi is seen on topmost line on left side of Varaha. They are accompanied with many gods who are represented with halos behind their heads. Below this row are probably asuras, demons, as there is no halo behind any image of that row. Below this row are the two rows for various sages. Figures on right of Varaha are of various musicians and apsaras.

On proper right lateral side, Ganga and Yamuna are shown descending from heaven to earth and mingling with ocean. This ambitious water imagery is attempted by carving incised wavy lines representing water. Among this ocean is standing a solitary male figure, probably Varuna the god of ocean, holding a vessel in his hands. Both the rivers are represented in their female forms, Ganga riding over makara and Yamuna over a tortoise.

J C Harle mentions that a unique attempt has been made, in this panel, to extend and amplify the scene and give literal expression to more of accompanying myth and symbolism. There is one figure which remains unexplained due to the badly mutilated image. It is shown behind the serpent and probably represent the donor, Chandragupta II. But it may be far fetched theory. Few scholars even suggest that this scene represents the victory of Chandragupta II over his enemies, the Sakas, and unifying the central region of India under one ruler. Central India region is represented with its two great rivers, Ganga and Yamuna, which mingled into a single ocean which may be the representation of Chandragupta's kingdom if not himself.

Cave No 6

Cave 6 (Cave 5 of Cunningham's report) - This cave is 14 feet deep and 12.5 feet broad. The ledge forming a verandah in front is 6 feet deep and 24 feet long. An ornamental doorway is carved on front face along with sculptural panels on either side. There are two panels on left and three panels on right of the door. The ornamental doorway has bell-capital pilasters on which figures of Ganga and Yamuna are placed. Though I mention Ganga and Yamuna but both are shown riding over a makara which is strange as tortoise is the traditional mount of Yamuna while makara is of Ganga.

There are three decorative bands over door jambs. Depression between the lintels and jambs is present similar to cave 3. Band above the third lintel band is consisted of horse-shoe shaped arches which have parallel vertical lines drawn inside. Above this band are carved three chaitya-like arches which have some figure inside however the figures are not very clear. The middle one may have a human figure while the side ones have an animal figure, probably of a lion.

Two sculptural panels, out of five, are for dvarpalas who are placed on either side of the door. They are standing talking support of a long axe-like weapon. Their hair-do appreciates their ferocious characteristic. Proper leftmost panel has a figure of Vishnu who is depicted with his gada, club, and chakra, discus. Panel next to the right dvarapala also depicts Vishnu however here his weapons are shown in human forms, ayudha-purusha. Panel on extreme right is for Durga who is depicted as Mahishasuramardini. A figure of Ganesha is carved on left lateral wall of the verandah.

There is Shiva-linga inside the cell which seems to have been carved out of original rock however its strange that Cunningham did not mention about it in his report. This suggests that the cave was dedicated to Shiva however presence of two Vishnu images and Mahishasura-mardini made some scholars to believe that it was dedicated to Vishnu.

On its right lateral side, at a right angle, there is cave like depression which would have been the part of this cave mandapa only. This depression is 8.5 feet long. A figure of dvarapala is sculpted on the front face. However this image is very much worn out. Inside the cave are seven images probably of Sapta-matrikas. Cunningham however mentions eight images representing Ashta-shakti.

Inscriptions -
1. Above the Vishnu and Mahishasura-mardini panel – Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum Vol III - written in Sanskrit language in western variety of the Gupta characters – dated in year 82 which may be taken in Gupta Era corresponding to 400-01 CE – Luck! In the year 82 is made this religious benefaction of the Sanakanika, the Maharaja ….dhala (?), the son’s son of the Maharaja Chhagalaga; and the son of the Maharaja Vishnudasa, who meditates on the feet of Parambhattaraka Maharajadhiraja, the glorious Chandragupta (II).

Cave No 7

Cave 7 - This cave is named as Tawa cave by Cunningham as there is a dome like roof above this cave. Cunningham suggests that it could be because of its Buddhist nature however it is not the case. The cell is 14 feet long and 12 feet wide. The door is simple and devoid of any band ornamentation. The lintel is protruding beyond the jambs hence does not come under ‘T’ door category.

There are two dvarapalas which are standing in the similar posture as that of cave 6. The roof of the cave is decorated with a lotus design which is not seen in previous caves, however present in few other caves which we will see later in the article.

Inscriptions - There is an inscription on the back wall of this cave.
1. On the back wall – published in Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum Vol III - written in Sanskrit in eastern variety of the Gupta characters – undated – records excavation of this cave which is dedicated to Shambhu (Shiva) by Virasena, surnamed Saba, who was a minister of Chandragupta (II) and got this position in heredity. He was accompanying the emperor on his mission to conquer the whole world.

Cave No 8

Cave 8 – This cave has an undecorated gateway without guardian figures. A figure of Vishnu is placed inside the sanctum.

Cave 10

Cave 10 - Two fully modeled guardian figures are flanked on either side of the gateway of this cave. Again we see an image of Vishnu inside the sanctum.

Cave No 10

Cave 10, 11 – Cave 10 is just a cavity. On the same rock face is cave 11 with a sanctum and door.

Cave No 12

Cave 12 - consists of a niche containing a standing figure of Narasimha, Vishnu in his 'Lion-man' incarnation. Below on either side are two small standing attendant figures. The images cut through a shell character about two meters in height. In the floor below Narasimha there is a short Brahmī inscription.

Vishnu as Sheshashai

Cave 13 - Vishnu as Anantasayana, lying over serpent Adisesa. Chandragupta, probably, shown sitting near the feet of the lord. Vishnu shown here with four hands, one hand is supporting his head and another he carries a chakra. The remaining two hands are resting on thighs. Adisesa is shown leftmost side with his hood.

Cave No 14

Cave 14 – The last cave on the left hand side at the top of the passage. It consists of a recessed square chamber of which only two sides are preserved. The outline of the chamber is visible in the floor, with a water channel pierced through the wall on one side as in the other caves at the site. One side of the door jamb is preserved, showing jambs with receding faces but without any relief carving.

Cave 15,16 - No idea where these are.

Cave No 17

Cave 17 (Cave 8 of Cunningham's report) – This cave is referred as Kotri in Cunningham’s report. A significant portion of the cave was damaged as evident with the stone reinforcements done at its proper right side. Due to this damage, left portion of the door is all gone. From the right side of the door, it can be inferred that the lintel does not protrude beyond the jambs. Also there would have been images of Ganga and Yamuna on top of the pilasters as image of Ganga is still there on the right portion of the door.

Two dvarpalas, almost worn out, are flanked on either side of the door. Two niches are also provided on each side of the entrance. Ganesha is carved on left side niche while Durga as Mahishasuramardini is present on right niche.

Cave No 18

Cave 18 – This is an empty cave with an undecorated doorway.

Cave No 19

Cave 19 (Cave 9 of Cunningham's report) - This cave has been referred as Amrita cave in Cunningham’s report due to presence of sea-churning activity depiction over the lintel. This cave has the most exquisite doorway among all the cave at the site. It has two bands. The inner band has foliage design all across it. The outer band has female figures at the bottom and above this it is divided into seven small panels. Panel 1, 3, 5 and 7 are carved with foliage design while rest of the columns have human figures, mostly couples. Lintel corresponding to this band has 13 such panels with alternate flower and couple decoration. The middle panel is left blank, probably to carve out the symbol of the main deity to whom this cave shrine is dedicated.

Pilasters, may be considered as third band as well, on either side starts with a male figure standing on a plank supported by a dwarf. Above them is the shaft of the pilaster which is topped with image of Ganga on both sides. Ganga is shown riding over makara. Above the lintel is a scene depicting samudra-manthan, ocean churning, a tussle between the gods and demons. An unfinished carving of nava-grha, nine planets, is seen above the samudra-manthan scene.

Two damaged statues of the dvarapalas are adorned on either side of the entrance.Though the mandapa has not survived but pillars are still standing in situ at the site. These pillars help us to understand how the mandapas in other caves would have been designed. These are square at the base but change to octagonal in middle and then again turning back to square shaft.

Cave 20 (Jaina Cave) – This cave is inaccessible at present hence I am giving its account as mentioned by Cunningham. The main excavation which runs from east to west, is 50 feet in length by 16 feet in breadth, and is divided into five rooms by cross-walls built of rough stones. The two innermost rooms are respectively 17.5 feet by 7 feet and 16.5 feet by 8 feet. The other three rooms are 15 feet and 11 feet. From the southernmost room a second excavation, consisting of three small rooms, runs from north to south. There is an inscription in one of the northern rooms.

Inscription -
1. Rock inscription of the time of Kumaragupta I - Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum (Fleet's edition) Vol III - Written in 8 lines in Sanskrit in Gupta characters - dated in year 106 of the Gupta Era (426-27 CE) - The inscriptions mentions a soldier named Sanghila, who was a son of Ashvapati and Padmavati, who was born in the northern country of the Kurus, and who installed an image of Parshvanatha in this cave. He was also known as Ripughna and Sankara. The inscription does not mention any particular Gupta king but mentions reign of theirs. The ruling king would be Kumaragupta I as the date falls under his period.

Heliodoros Pillar

Heliodorus Pillar - Heliodorus was a Greek ambassador to India in the second century B.C. Few details are known about the diplomatic relations between the Greeks and the Indians in those days, and still less is known about Heliodorus. But that the column he erected at Besnagar in central India about 140 BC is considered one of the most important archaeological finds on the Indian subcontinent. It is known that Heliodorus was sent to the court of King Bhagabhadra by Antiakalidas, the Greek king of Taxila. The kingdom of Taxila was part of the Bactrian region in northwest India, conquered by Alexander the Great in 325 B.C. By the time of Antialkidas, the area under Greek rule included what is today Afghanistan, Pakistan and Punjab. The column erected by Heliodorus first came to notice in 1877, during an archaeological survey by General Cunningham. The inscription, however, went unnoticed, because of the pillar's thick coating of red lead paste. It had been the custom of pilgrims who had worshipped there to smear the column with vermillion paste. The column, Cunningham deduced from its shape, was from the period of the Imperial Guptas (A.D. 300-550). Thirty-two years later, however, when the inscription was brought to light, it became clear that the monument was several centuries older.

(excerpts from http://www.archaeologyonline.net/)
In January 1901, a Mr Lake discerned what he thought was some lettering on the lower part of the column, and removal of some vermillion paste proved him right. Dr. J.H. Marshall, who was accompanied by Mr Lake, described the discovery in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society in 1909. Cunningham, Marshall explained, had been mistaken about the age of the column and "could little have dreamt of the value of the record which he just missed discovering." A glance at the few letters exposed was all that was needed to show that the column was many centuries earlier than the Gupta era. This was, indeed, a surprise to me, but a far greater one was in store, when the opening lines of the inscription came to be read."

A reproduction of the inscription, along with the transliteration and translation of the ancient Brahmi text, is given here as it appeared in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society.

1) Devadevasu Va[sude]vasa Garudadhvajo ayam
2) Karito ia Heliodorena bhaga
3) Vatena Diyasa putrena Takhasilakena
4) Yonadatena agatena maharajasa
5) Amtalikitasa upa[m]ta samkasam-rano
6) Kasiput[r]asa [Bh]agabhadrasa tratarasa
7) Vasena [chatu]dasena rajena vadhamanasa

" This Garuda-column of Vasudeva (Visnu), the god of gods, was erected here by Heliodorus, a worshipper of Vishnu, the son of Dion, and an inhabitant of Taxila, who came as Greek ambassador from the Great King Antialkidas to King Kasiputra Bhagabhadra, the Savior, then reigning prosperously in the fourteenth year of his kingship."

1) Trini amutapadani-[su] anuthitani
2) nayamti svaga damo chago apramado

"Three immortal precepts (footsteps)..when practiced lead to heaven-self restraint, charity, conscientiousness."

From the inscriptions it is seems clear Heliodorus was influenced by Vedic principles that he could be considered to be a Vaishnava, a follower or worshipper of Visnu. Professor Kunja Govinda Goswami of Calcutta University concludes that Heliodorus " was well acquainted with the texts dealing with the Bhagavat [Vaishnava] relgion."

To our knowledge, Heliodorus is the earliest Westerner on record to adopt Vedic principles. But some scholars, most notably A.L. Basham and Thomas Hopkins, are of the opinion that Heliodorus was not the only Greek to adopt such principles. Hopkins, chairman of the department of religious studies at Franklin and Marshall College, has said " Heliodorus was presumably not the only foreigner who converted to Vaishnava devotional practices -- although he might have been the only one who erected a column, at least one that is still extant. Certainly there must have been many others."

It is also interesting to note that the Heliodorus column has other historical merits. Around the turn of the century, a number of Indologists (Weber, Macnicol, and others) had noted " points of similarity' between the Vaishnava philosophy of unalloyed devotion and Christian doctrine. They had argued that Vaishnavism (worship of Vishnu and Krishna) must have been an offshoot of Christianity, and cited the similarity between stories about Krishna and about Christ to further support their claim. But the discovery of the inscription on the Heliodorus column laid their speculations to rest. Here was conclusive archaeological proof that the Vaishnava tradition antedated Christianity by at least two hundred years.

The column also struck down another popular notion. For centuries it was a common belief among scholars that India's orthodox tradition did not accept converts. An Islamic historian, Abu Raihan Alberuni, who went to India in A.D. 1017, tried to explain in his book Indica why the Indian orthodoxy did not admit foreigners. Alberuni suggested that the practice developed only after the Moghul incursion into India, sometime after A.D. 674. Antagonism between the Moghul and Hindus seems to be the main reason behind the non conversion practice. For many centuries prior to Moghul presence, however, there had been no bar to conversion into the orthodox fold, as attested by the Heliodorus column.

Food and Accommodation – Vidisha is a relatively big town and you will get good options to stay in everyone’s budget. However better option would be to stay in Sanchi and visit Vidisha as a day trip. Vidisha has many eatery options, however as I did not try much there so can’t help you on this.

How to reach – Vidisha is about 56 km from Bhopal and 10 km from Sanchi. Vidisha is a main railhead on Bhopal-Bina railway line, and many trains from Delhi to Mumbai stop here. Vidisha is conveniently reachable via road from Bhopal and Sanchi. Nearest airport is at Bhopal.

References -

Agrawala, V S (1977). Gupta Art. Prithivi Prakashan. New Delhi.
Bhandarkar, D R (1981). Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum Vol III. Archaeological Survey of India. New Delhi.
Brown, Percy (1959). Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindu Periods). D B Taraporevala. Mumbai.
Cunningham, Alexander (1880). Report of Tours in the Bundelkhand and Malwa in 1874-75-76-77 (Vol X). Archaeological Survey of India. New Delhi.
Harle, J C (1974). Gupta Sculpture. Munshiram Manoharlal. New Delhi. ISBN 8121506417
Mishra, S N (1992). Gupta Art and Architecture. Agam Kala Prakashan. New Delhi.

Ratanpur - The City of Ratnadeva

2011-07-08T10:23:00.000+05:30

Introduction – Ratanpur is referred as Ratnapura in inscriptions of the Haihaya kings. As per an inscription, Haihaya king Ratnaraja, also known as Ratnadeva I, established the city of Ratnapura and probably shifted his capital to this new city from Tummana (present Tuman). As no inscription earlier than this dynasty has been found at Ratanpur hence their claim of founding this city seems true and remains uncontested.

Another legend equates Ratanpur with Manipur where the latter is mentioned in Mahabharata. As per the legend, Ratnaraja renamed the village Manipur to Ratanpur. Ratan and Mani both means the same thing, a gem in Hindi. However Manipur of Mahabharata is situated at the bank of Suktimati river and there is no river near Ratanpur, which made Cunningham to simply reject this legend.

There is a nice legend on why Ratnaraja shifted his capital from Tuman to Ratanpur. It says that Ratnaraja reached Ratanpur by evening during a hunt. Instead of going back to Tuman at night, he decided to spend the night under a tree nearby Mahamaya Temple. His sleep was disturbed by strong light in the middle of the night. He woke up and found the court of the Goddess Mahamaya in progress where she was present with her attendants. He was quite surprised but went back to Tuman next morning. Later in the night he had a dream where the goddess asked him to move his capital to Ratanpur which will result in his fame and glory.

In an inscription of Jajalladeva, dated in 1114 CE, who was descendant of Ratnaraja, Ratanpur is described as the city of Kubera (lord of wealth) being decked with many-colored wonderful jewels such that it looks like ocean and decorated with many temples making its appearance like that of heaven. In a later inscription, of king Vahara in 1495 CE compares this city with the city of Indra. However the picture presented by explores and archaeologists of nineteenth century is quite different. The city which was rivaled with the city of gods had been reduced to a small village whose people were living under very substandard conditions.

J D Beglar visited Ratanpur in 1873-74 and reported its antiquities. He describes it as a decayed village with full of dirty pools and marshes leading to unhealthy condition of its residents. He tells that most of the residents were severely afflicted with goiter and it is rare indeed to see a permanent residents of the place with a healthy look. In his words, ‘..all are sickly, and the town wears a look of decay and squalid wretchedness unrivalled in the district, and only paralleled by Wyragarh in Chanda district’. He also mentioned that most of the temples were of recent time though some may have been constructed at the site of ancient temples utilizing their material. Temple material is also utilized in construction of the fort and Badal Mahal, a building inside the fort.

The picture at present is quite different. Ratanpur is an important pilgrimage site and this credit goes to Mahamaya temple which, as per a tradition, is considered as one of the Shaktipeeth, however it is not true. Shaktipeeths are considered very sacred among the Hindus and attract a large number of pilgrims all around the year. Portraying a Devi temple as a Shaktipeeth will result in glory, fame and money which is probably the reason that many devi temples across India claim to be a Shaktipeeth. Festival of nav-ratri is celebrated twice a year at Mahamaya temple and pilgrims from all over India come to Ratanpur to get blessings of the goddess. The town now has good facilities for pilgrims, though it cannot be termed very clean town but it is far better than the picture shown by Beglar during his visit in 1873-74.

General Epigraphs – Below are few epigraphs which were found at Ratanpur but their exact finding locations are not recorded.

1. Raipur plates of Prithvideva I – Found in Raipur but issued from Ratnapura – dated in year 821 of the Kalchuri Era (Sunday, the 18th January 1069 CE) – written in Nagari characters and Sanskrit language - First plate is lost, only last plate has survived from the set – it refers to Prithvideva who born in the Kalchuri family and is the lord of Kosala. He obtained this grace from the god Vankeshvara. The purpose of the grant is to record a donation of village Asautha in the Apara mandala to a brahmana, Joguka, on the occasion of Uttarayana-Samkranti by the king. Vigraharaja is mentioned as his minster of war and peace – engraved by Hasala
2. Ratanpur stone inscription of Jajalladeva I – now in Nagpur museum – dated Kalchuri year 866 (Sunday, the 8th November 1114 CE) – 31 lines in Nagari characters and Sanskrit language – The inscription refers itself to the reign of Jajalladeva I of the Kalchuri dynasty of Ratanpur. His genealogy is traced from Moon to Kartavirya. In his race was born Haihaya whose sons were called as Haihayas. In this race of Haihayas was born Kokalla , the lord of Chedi, which may be taken as the first historical personage in the inscription. He had eighteen sons, of whom the eldest became the lord of Tripuri. He made his brothers lords of mandalas. The family of one of these younger brothers produced in course of time Kalingaraja, who leaving the ancestral country, conquered Dakshina-Kosala. He resided at Tummana as the place was previously capital of his ancestors. From him was born Kamalaraja who had a son named Ratnaraja I. The latter adorned Tummana with several temples such as gods Vankeshvara and Ratneshvara. He also founded Ratnapura and adorned it with many temples. He put Yasa as the mayor of Ratnapura. Ratnadeva I married Nanalla, the daughter of Vajjuka, the lord of Komo-mandala. She bore to him a son, Prithvideva I who succeeded Ratnadeva I. He built many temples such as Prithvishvara at Tummana and excavated a large tank at Ratnapura. He married Rajalla and begot Jajalladeva I. The latter’s friendship was sought by the lord of Chedi. He was also honored with presents of wealth by the kings of Kanyakubja and Jejabhukti. He defeated Someshvara and imprisoned him together with his ministers and wives, but afterwards released them as desired by his mother. The kings of Kosala, Andhra, Khimidi, Vairagara, Lanjika, Bhanara, Talahari, Dandakapura, Nandavali and Kukkuta paid annual tributes to him. He founded a city named Jajallapura and constructed a monastery for ascetics, raised a garden and excavated a tank. The object of the inscription is evidently to record the king’s donation of the villages Siruli, Arjunakonasarana and others, whose names are lost, to the deity of some temple in Jajallapura. The inscription mentions Rudrashiva as the spiritual preceptor of the king. Vigraharaja is mentioned as his minister of war and peace - the name of the poet who composed this inscription is lost however he was some way related to a personage of caste Kayastha who belonged to a Gauda family and was minister of the king Karna, the inscription is engraved by a person who seems to have belonged to the Vastavya family – Tummana is present Tuman near Ratanpur, Komo-Mandala, Kanyakubja is Kanauj, Jejabhukti is Jajjhauti, capital of Chandellas, Khimidi is probably Kimidi in Ganjam, Vairagara is Vairagarh in Chanda district, Lanjika is Lanji, Bhanara is Bhandara in Madhya Pradesh, Talahari is territory around Malhar in Chattisgarh Dandakapura is probably Dantan in Midnapur, Nandavali and Kukkuta are not identified, Jajallapura may be same as present Janjgir
3. Ratanpur stone inscription of Ratnaraja I – found at Ratanpur but exact place is not known, now in Nagpur museum – fragmentary 28 lines written in Nagari characters and Sanskrit language – dated in year 910 of the Kalchuri Era (1158-59 CE) – mentions Ratnaraja to be born in Kalchuri family and compared with Mandhata. His son was Prithvideva and latter’s son was Jajalladeva. Jajalladeva married Lachchhalladevi and begot Ratnadeva. The inscription further mentions a chief, Vallabharaja, under Prithvideva II. He did many work of social interest like constructing lakes and tanks in village around Ratnapura, raising gardens and building temples. Information about his family is also given - composed by Devapani

Monuments – There are many monuments of interest in this small town however you will not find monuments with ancient antiquity.

Left side sculpture

Right side sculpture

Mahamaya Temple – This temple probably symbolizes Ratanpur in the present era. It is suggested, by locals, to be one among the 52 Shaktipeeths however it is not counted among them in reality. The present temple is a recent construction which probably is standing on the place of an ancient temple. The mandapa is supported on sixteen pillars which are plain. There are two statues in sanctum, garbha-griha, one of Mahamaya in form of Mahishasuramardini and one of Saraswati, placed behind the former image. Both the images are always decorated with jewelry and clothes hence seeing these in original is almost impossible. Image of Saraswati is believed to be extinct now.

Who constructed this temple and when is not known. As the town was established by Ratnadeva, it may be assumed that he constructed this temple as well. Some people suggests that the Devi shrine was already there, may be in very primitive state, and Ratnadeva constructed a temple around that. However these stories are just to create a belief of ancient antiquity about the temple. There are two inscriptions on the mandapa entrance however none talks about the construction of the temple. These inscription are of the Haihaya king Vahara and dated to 1495 CE. It may be possible that he constructed this mandapa however if it is true then why his inscriptions are silent on this achievement? I believe that the mandapa was constructed before the time of Vahara. Present form of the temple hides all the previous forms assumed by this temple. Now it’s a mass of marble arranged in a manner that of a mansion. Surprisingly people adore this modern construction, alas! they do not know what all they have lost in building this uninteresting and unattractive structure.

Main entrance

Main gate of the temple is adorned with large metal sculptures, one on either side. One sculpture depicts Shiva carrying dead body of Sati, perhaps to denote that this temple is among the Shaktipeeths, and another sculpture depicts Shiva gulping Halahala (poison) which came out of churning the ocean. These sculptures are impressive and attractive. There are two rampant lions on either side of the entrance gate. The gate leads a visitor into a compound where many small shrines are located. The main shrine of Mahamaya is the biggest among them.

Temple complex

Though the recent constructions are done at the cost of losing the old structures however I would like to appreciate the facilities provided by the temple committee for pilgrims. They have done a wonderful job and clearly deserve my applauds though I am no one whose applauds are of some value. Whatever it be, seeing the temple premises, you would wonder whether it is the same town as described by Beglar in 1873 as the progress witnessed by the town overflows from many quarters.

Raju Tiwari also mentions that Ratanpur was known as Devi-Khola in ancient times and later it was established as Ratanpur by Ratnaraja. He suggests that the name Devi-Khola clearly proves that this place was blessed with the presence of the goddess Mahamaya. He mentions that it is proved by evidences however he did not mention which evidences. In these circumstances, antiquity of Ratanpur or this Devi temple cannot be taken before eleventh century CE.

Inscriptions –
1. Left side of the doorway – 5 lines in Nagari characters and in Sanskrit language – undated but should be of same period as of the below inscription - this inscription refers to the reign of Haihaya king Vaharendra or Vahara who was staying at Ratnapur and had a force of a thousand horses and sixty elephants. It compares the city of Ratnapura with the city of Indra. Govinda was the mayor of Ratnapura under king Vahara.
2. Right side of the doorway - 11 lines in Nagari characters and in Sanskrit language – dated in year 1552 (should be of Vikrama Samvat) = 1495-96 CE – the inscription opens with salutation to Vishvakarma, the architect of gods. It then praises the sutradhara Chhitaku of the Kokasa family. He was the son of Manmatha and brother of Mandana. All of these are also mentioned in the Kosgain stone inscription of Vahara

Kanthi Dewal Complex

Kanti Deul (Kanthi Dewal) – There are two temples in this complex which are recently reconstructed, on the same original plan, by Archaeological Survey of India. This reconstruction was done to provide reinforcements to its basement which was deviated to one side due to its proximity to a water tank. These temple were probably built in fifteenth century CE as the architecture style is Indo-Saracenic which has Muslim influence. However there are many statues studded in their walls which are of earlier origin. Two possibilities, either the temples were constructed at the site of an old temple hence presence of original statues or these statues were brought from some other ruins and placed at the new site. ASI information board does not give any information about this point and also there is no inscription found hence we are free to make our own opinion in this regard. I would go for statues brought from some other site way.

Raju Tiwari mentions that few skeletons were unearthed during the excavation below the garbhagriha, sanctum, of one temple. This suggests that the temple may have been a memorial of some king probably. Constructing a monument over the death bed of a king is not a rare practice during those times. Also as there is no river nearby Ratanpur, so it is very possible that the kings were buried near the tank. But why buried instead of cremation which is usually practiced among the Hindus?

Brahma and Vishnu standing

Brahma and Vishnu seated on either side of a fire column

Vishnu worshipping Shiva

The bigger temple is dedicated to Shiva and constructed with an octagonal shikhara. There are imaged studded in this outer wall. You will find statues of Chamunda, Shiva with Parvati, Vishnu and Shala-bhanjika. There is one peculiar vertical stone with three bands. It probably represents Shiva as Lingodbhavamurti however I have not seen this icon in temples of North India region of that time hence this could be the first such representation. If true then the story as, told in Puranas, is not clearly depicted. Two top bands depict Brahma and Vishnu, once standing and once seated. There is a column in between them and Shiva is shown seated on top of the column. When Brahma and Vishnu are shown standing, they are not holding their hands in Anjali mudra however when they are shown seated, their hands are in anjalu-mudra. It may be derived that when they were standing they were bewildered about the fire column in between but when they got realized Shiva as the fire column itself then they joined their hands to pay their respect. As per the original story, Brahma flew upward in form of a swan and Vishnu dug the earth in form of a boar to find out the origin of the great fire column. This aspect of the story is missing here. The bottommost band shows Vishnu worshipping Shiva who is in form of a Mukhalinga. Anyway, do you see any arrangements or order in these statues, I do not see any hence I say that the images were brought from somewhere else and placed here.

Shala-bhanjika

Fort – This dilapidated fort is situated near the bus stand. From its remains it can be said that it would have been quite a building in its youth. As Ratanpur is believed to be established by king Ratnaraja, hence it is very possible that this fort was also constructed during his reign. However its antiquity before king Ratnaraja cannot be ruled out fully. There are two possibilities, either Ratanpur was in existence already and Ratnaraja just renamed the town or he established from scratch or from a very small occupation. As we have not found any inscription older than the Haihaya kings and also there is no mention of Ratanpur in other old inscriptions, it may be assumed that Ratanpur was established newly by Ratnaraja. In that case, this fort would have been built by him. It is a well known fact that Ratnaraja shifted his capital from Tuman to Ratanpur so he would have built this fort to safeguard this new city.

The earliest inscription found in Ratanpur is dated in Kalchuri Year 821 (1069 CE) in the reign of king Prithvideva, son of Ratnaraja or Ratnadeva I. It could be a possibility that the fort was also constructed during his reign. A local authority, Raju Tiwari, who is a journalist tells that as per Pandit Shivdatt Shashtri, this fort was built by Prithvideva I in Kalchuri Year 814 (1062 CE). However I am not aware of any epigraph or some other supportive material where this is mentioned.

The fort is not situated on a high rising hill but rather on a plateau. Only few gates of the fort are left now, which are not in very good state of preservation. The fort is known as Gaja Kila locally as a legend states that it looks like an elephant if viewed aerially. Another legend states that the main gate, Simha Darwaja, is in form of a seated elephant hence named Gaja Kila. There are few but impressive statues adorned on the side walls of the fort. These statues were probably taken from ruins of temples at the site. One status represents the scene of offering his heads on a Shivalinga by Ravana. There are many temples inside this fort. Three gates, Simha Darwaja, Bhairav Darwaja and Semar Darwaja are still standing. The last one is almost fully in ruins.

Inscriptions –
1. Ratanpur Stone Inscription of Jajalladeva - this stone inscription is supposedly discovered inside the fort – now in Nagpur museum – 24 lines in Nagari characters and Sanskrit language – dated in year 1207 of Vikram Samvat (1150 CE) - Lineage of the Haihayas is traced from Moon and in this race was born Jajalladeva I. His son, Ratnadeva II, defeated the mighty warriors of the Chodaganga king. From him was born Prithvideva II in whose reign this inscription is engraved. The purpose of the inscription is to inform that a temple for Shiva is constructed by Devagana whose family was migrated from Chedi mandala to Tummana some time back. - composed by Devagana, written by Kumarapala and engraved by Sampula

Badal Mahal – As I have not personally visited this monument so my account is derived from various reference books. This is located on Ratanpur-Kota road and is in ruins. As per a legend it was built by Rajsingh Dev, son of Takhat Singh, in sixteenth century CE. He established a small habitat here and named it Rajpur. However after the death of his son, Vishwanath Singh, he abandoned this palace. The legend further mentions that Rajsingh started living in Gaja Kila at Ratanpur. There he came to know about a fact that he is not the son of king Takhatsingh but of some brahmana diwan. On this revelation he ordered killing of that diwan.

People tell that this palace was built by king Rajsingh for his Naga queen. The palace is built in form of a swing so that the queen can enjoy her time here. Whatever be the truth, the palace would be a quite considerable structure in its time as evident from its ruins. Local people also name is Satkhanda as there is a ruined structure of three-four floors in between this palace. There are many tanks around this temple and it also has an old well. People say that there is a tunnel at the base of this well which connects to a tank in Bilaspur, but who knows the truth. ASI never make any statements to clarify these doubts. You will hear tunnel stories in all the forts and palaces of India.

Inscriptions –
1. Ratanpur stone inscription – discovered within Badal Mahal, now in Nagpur museum – 36 lines written in Nagari characters and in Sanskrit language – dated year 915 of the Kalchuri Era (1163-63 CE) – The inscription is of Brahmadeva, a feudatory under Prithvideva, and talks about religious and charitable works of his at various places. He is referred as the foremost of all the mandala chiefs. Prithvideva called him from Talahari-mandala to entrust the government of his country. Brahmadeva constructed a Shiva temple Mallala, constructed a temple for Srikanta at Varelpura, built nine shrine for Parvati at Ratnapura and excavated a tank at Ratnapura. Several other works of his are mentioned in the inscription – composed by Tribhuvanapala, son of Ananthapala and written by Kumarapala and engraved by Dhanapati and Isvara

Girjabandh Hanuman Temple

There are many other temples in Ratanpur. Bhirava temple is one important monument which is situated at Bilaspur-Pali road within limits if Ratanpur town. This temple is very famous for its tantra and other similar characteristics. Rama temple at Rama Tekri, which was constructed by a Maratha king, and Girjabandh Hanuman temple are few other important temples.

How to Reach – Ratanpur is about 25 km away from Bilaspur which is the nearest railway head as well. It is situated on NH200 which connects Bilaspur to Ambikapur. Raipur is the nearest airport. Public transports are frequently available from Bilaspur.

References:

Cunningham, Alexander (1872). Report of a Tour in Bundelkhand and Malwa and in the Central Provinces (Vol VII). Archaeological Survey of India. New Delhi.
Cunningham, Alexander (1881). Report on Tours in the Central Provinces and Lower Gangetic Doab in 1880-81 (Vol XVII). Archaeological Survey of India. New Delhi.
Mirashi, V V (1955). Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum Vol IV Part 2. Archaeological Survey of India. New Delhi.
Sampath, M D (2001). Epigraphs of Madhya Pradesh. Archaeological Survey of India. New Delhi.
तिवारी, राजू (2008) | रतनपुर को सती का शाप | आरपा पॉकेट बुक्स | बिलासपुर |

Rajim - Prayaga of Chattisgarh

2011-06-28T21:20:00.002+05:30

Introduction – Rajim (राजिम) is probably the holiest place in Chattisgarh (छत्तीसगढ़) as it is situated at the eastern bank of Mahanadi (महानदी) river, just below its junction with Pairi (पैरी) and Sondhur (सोंढूर) rivers. Due to its location, on the junction of three rivers, it is often classified as Prayaga (Allahabad) of this region, Chattisgarh. Mahanadi enjoys the same status as that of Ganga in Chattisgarh hence taking bath and performing rituals at the bank Mahanadi is considered very sacred. Rajim-Mahatmya mentions that Mahanadi is known as Chitrotpala below its junction with Pairi and Utpalesvara before the junction. It is also believed that your journey to Jagannath Temple of Orissa is not complete if you do not visit Rajim. Mahashivaratri is celebrated with full faith and vigor. It used to be a show of three month in old days as perported by Beglar and Cunningham however at present the celebrations run for a month only.

It is not only the holiest but one of the most ancient town of Chattisgarh. It has attracted historians, archaeologists and vivid travelers since ages and it continues to mesmerize you with its cultural, historical and social heritage. J D Beglar visited Rajim in 1871-72 and reported its antiquities. He was not allowed to enter inside the temples hence his account is very limited. Alexander Cunningham, who visited Rajim in 1881-82, describes it in detail. He tells that Rajim was a small village of about 3000 inhabitants and the holiest place of Maha-Kosala (महाकोशल), present Chattisgarh. Rajiv-Lochan (राजीव-लोचन) Temple, the main temple of this town, was visited by pilgrims on their way to Jagannath in Orissa.

Richard Jenkins narrates a story about the name Rajim. When Rama did his ashvamedha, king Raju-lochana was ruling over Raju. When the sacrificial horse arrived at Raju, the king seized it and handed over to sage Kardama. Shatrughna who was accompanying the horse with his army tried to take it from sage Kardama but was reduced to ashes by him. Rama on hearing the news of the death of his brother soon reached Raju. However king Raju-lochana met him and obtained favor for him. Rama told the king that there are two deities at Raju, Utpaleshvar Mahadev and Nilkantheshvar. However as Shiva and Vishnu is same so he would make his abode here in worship of Shiva. Rama ordered the king to set up an image in his name and call it Raju-lochana. He further pleased rishi Kardama and got back Shatrughna to life.

However there is no such story mentioned in Ramayana. Cunningham suggests that it would be a late invention of the brahmanas of Rajin to rival the claim of ancient capital of Manipur where ashvamedha horse of Yudhisthara was captured by Babhru-vahana. No inscription refer to name Rajim however some inscriptions mention name of a king, Jagat Pal, whose father, Sahilla, was the head of a race named Rajamala. Cunningham suggests that his city would be Rajamalapuram which later changed to Rajam or Rajim.

Monuments – There are many monuments of interest at this small town.

Rajiv Lochan Temple

Rajiv-Lochan Temple – J D Beglar, who visited Rajim in 1871-72, mentions a tradition about naming of this temple. Rajba was a telin (oil dealer) who used to worship Narayana regularly. After 12 years of her worship, Narayana pleased over her and granted a boon. She replied, ‘My Lord, stay here always, and let my name precede yours.’. Hence Rajba telin’s name is first uttered in pronouncing the name Rajiv-Lochan. Some authorities told Richard Jenkins that previous to Rajib telin’s time Rajim was known as Kamal-kshetra or Padmapura.

Cunningham also mentions similar tradition but with few more details. He writes that there was a telin in Chanda named Rajib or widow Raju. She had a black stone which she was using as a weight. King Jagat Pal had a dream about this stone and he got curious to acquire it to make a temple over it. He offered Rajib gold equal to the weight of stone in exchange of that black stone but she refused. At last she agreed to exchange the stone with queen’s nose ring and on promise that the temple should be named after her. Jagat Pal constructed this temple and named it after her name as per his promise.

Cunningham mentions another tradition from a different informant. It states that Jagat Pal saw Thakur (Narayana) in his dream who asked him to get the black stone and put it in the temple. Rajib, who possessed that stone, demanded gold equal to its weight in exchange of the stone but Jagat Pal did not have that much gold. At last, Rajib agreed to exchange it for the nose ring of the queen. Jagat Pal put that stone in the temple. Rajib left Chanda and settled nearby this temple. Later she built her temple near the main temple.

Sir Richard Jenkins also narrates similar story as above but in that he told that the stone recovered from Rajib was the original image of Rama Chandra. This stone was set up in the temple by king Rajiva-Lochana under his own name. Cunningham suggests that the temple was renovated during Jagat Pal’s time, 1145 CE, and the name of the temple was on that oil-dealer who gave the black stone which is now placed in a platter near the Vishnu image inside the sanctum. As copper plates of Tivara-deva were found about 5-6 feet underground this temple only so the temple would have been in existence by the time of Tivara-deva who is wrongly assigned to 425 CE by Cunningham but to eighth century CE by later authorities.

Western Entrance

Main entrance to the temple compound is from west however a small entrance is provided at north also. This courtyard is 147 feet in length and 102 feet in width. There are five temples inside the courtyard, central main temple and four shrines at four corners. Rajiv-Lochan shrine stands in center, shrine for Narasimha on north-west corner, shrine for Badrinatha on north-east corner, shrine for Vamana on south-east corner and a shrine for Varaha on south-west corner. Shrine at corners are small in size, 12 feet 4 inches square, and have similar shikhara as of the central temple. All the temples have their respective deities except the shrine of Badrinath which has an image of Vishnu. These shrines and the compound wall were constructed quite after the construction of the main temple.

Entrance door on west is very heavily carved however this is a later construction. The entrance forms two chambers. There are five bands on door jamb, first and third have images of couples, second and fourth have foliage decoration and fifth has many acrobatic figures intermingled with creepers. There is an image of Sheshashai Vishnu in the center of the door lintel. Surprisingly, this image is a masterpiece in its category as many of its features point to Gupta craftsmanship. An image of Gaja-Lakshmi is placed just below the central image of Sheshashai Vishnu. With application of paint and oil has damaged the original features of the most of the images of this door. There is an image of Buddha placed on one corner of inner chamber. Local people identify this Buddha image with the image of the King Jagat Pal.

The main temple in center is consisted to a garbha-griha (sanctum), antarala (vestibule) and an oblong mandapa. Usually we encounter a square mandapa in the temples of that time however there is an oblong mandapa at this temple and at Lakshmana Temple of Sirpur. This characteristic can be taken as a unique one in the architecture of Maha-Kosala region. The temple faces east and is built upon a jagati (platform) which is 69 feet long and 43 feet wide with a height of 8 feet. The temple, above this jagati, is 59 feet long and 25 feet wide. Mandapa is 38 feet long and 17 feet wide. Mandapa is open only on north and is approached by two flights of steps, one on north-west and one on south-west corner. Both the staircases lead the visitor into the western end of the mandapa.

Narasimha on pilaster

Ganga on pilaster

Mandapa is supported on twelve pillars, in two rows of six pillars each, and twelve pilasters, six on either side. Pillars are plain squares with ornamentation just below the capital area. All the pilasters are adorned with life size statues. There are total of twelve images. Starting from south-west on southern wall, a male figure with a dagger in his waist and a bow and arrows on shoulders, Cunningham suggests that it could be Rama. Next is a female standing on lion pedestal and two flying kinnars on top. Next is a couple where female is taller then the accompanying male and she is holding the neck of her male company in very peculiar manner. Local people says that this is an image of Sita, the wife of Rama. However this image represents a amorous couple as the male is holding a snake which is a symbol of sexuality and there is a parrot as well over a tree which further supports this hypothesis. Next in line is a status of Ganga standing over a makara and accompanied with an attendant who is holding an umbrella. Next is a statue of Narasimha. Next is a statue of dvarpala. Now on northern wall, starting from north-east, first is an statue of dvarapala similar to its counterpart on the opposite pilasters. Next is depicted Varaha incarnation. Next in line is Yamuna standing over a tortoise. Next is a statue of a female standing over a lion pedestal where three lions are carved. Next is an image of Durga who is shown with eight hands and sitting over her mount, lion. Last in line is a statue of a male who is holding a dagger in his waist and riding a horse chariot of five horses, Cunningham suggests that it could be Surya.

Vamana image in Vamana sub shrine

Shiva as Gajasamharamurti in Badrinath sub-shrine

Shiva as Nataraja in Badrinath sub-shrine

The sanctum is of 20 feet square from outside. Above this square rises apyramidal shikhara (tower). This shikhara is consisted to four tiers having small shrines on all corners. There are four chaitya-niches on each side of the shikhara. There is a circular griva (neck) which rests above the fourth tier. Above this griva is stepped circular structure which is topped with an amalaka. Above the amalaka is finial. The height of this finial is approximately 50 feet from ground.

Vishnu on sanctum door lintel

There is a black stone image Vishnu image inside the sanctum. He is carrying gada (club), shankha (conch), chakra (discus) and lotus. However Rajiv-Lochana is a title of Lord Rama, hence the current name of the temple is not as old as the temple. There is an image of Garuda on the lintel of the sanctum door which proves that the temple is dedicated to Vishnu. Various images of couples on sanctum door bands

There are two foundation inscriptions, one on southern wall and one on northern wall of the mandapa. Inscription on northern wall is dated to beginning of eighth century CE based upon paleographic studies. Its mentions construction of a Vishnu temple by a king of Nala dynasty. Another inscription, on southern wall of the mandapa, mentions construction of a Rama temple by Jagapala in 1145 CE. There is an image of Vishnu inside the sanctum hence the temple is dedicated to Vishnu but not to Rama, though both represent one and same god. Scholars suggests that the later inscription must be referring to repair done by Jagapala but not of construction as the temple was already there. There are two possibilities, either we may assume that Jagapala enhanced the temple by constructing subsidiary shrines and compound wall or the inscription slab does not talk about Rajiv-Lochan temple but some other temple. However no scholar has proposed the later theory so I assume that it is not tenable on some ground otherwise they would have thought about this. But if we accept the repair theory then why the inscription mentions temple of Rama? Is it because this temple was known as Rama temple by the time of Jagapala? But why as the image inside the sanctum is clearly depicts Vishnu attributes. Also standalone image of Rama is very rare to find as he is usually accompanied with Sita and Lakshmana.

Jagat Pala's inscription

Inscriptions –
1. Tivara-Deva copper plate grant (Gupta Inscriptions by J F Fleet) – This grant was found 5-6 feet underground the temple. It mentions a grant of village by king Tivara Deva, a predecessor of Mahashivagupta Balarjuna who built many temples at Sirpur.
2. Stone slab on northern wall of the mandapa (Epigraphia Indica Vol XXVI) – Kutila script and Sanskrit language - dated to beginning of eighth century CE on paleographic studies – Inscription starts with obeisance to Vishnu and then mentions glory of King Nala, of Nala dynasty of Mahabharata. It then mentions King Bilastunga and his predecessors Prthiviraja and Viruparaja. It then tells that king Bilastunga built a temple of Vishnu – composed by Durgagola and engraved by Durghasti.
3. Stone slab on southern wall of the mandapa (Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum Vol IV part 2) – 19 lines in Nagari characters and Sanskrit language - dated in year 896 of Kalchuri Era (1145 CE) on Budha-dina or Wednesday, the eight tithi, called rath-ashtami, in the bright fortnight of the Magha month – The object of the inscription is to record construction of a temple of Rama (it should be taken as repair and not construction as the Rajiv-Lochan temple was already constructed prior of Jagapala’s time or this stone does not belong to this temple) and grant of the village Salmaliya for the purpose of the food offerings to the deity by Jagapala (later referred as Jagatsimha in line 10). After the customary obeisance to Narayana, the inscription traces the genealogy of the donor Jagapala from Thakkura Sahilla, the latter was the spotless ornament of the family of Rajamala and have come from the country of Vadahara (V V Mirashi suggests that it was probably situated in the country of Bhanjas whereas R B Hiralal identifies it with Badahara in Mirzapur district) . He made brave kings tremble in wars and brought the Vivarabhumi under his sway. Sahilla has a younger brother, Vasudeva, and three sons Bhayila, Desala and Svamin. They conquered the Bhattavila and Vihara countries. Jayadeva, elder son of Svamin, acquired the country of Dandora (V V Mirashi identifies it with former state of Sarguja which was once called Bais Dandor) containing 2100 villages, while the younger son, Devasimha, took Komo mandala (V V Mirashi identifies it with Pendra). Thakkuraini Udaya, who was the wife of one of the two sons of Svamin, was the mother of Jagapala. Next six lines detail about the accomplishments of Jagapala. The Mayurikas and Savantas were submitted to him. For his overlord, Jajalladeva, Jagapala conquered the Tamanala together with Ratha and Tera. During the reign of Ratnadeva II, he acquired the name of Jagatsimha by his heroic deeds in the Talahari country (V V Mirashi identifies it with southern part of Bilaspur) . But his exploits were even greater during the reign of Prithvideva II when he took the string fort of Saraharagadha (Kielhorn identifies it with Sarangarh) and Machaka-Sihava (R B HIralal identifies it with Mechaka-Sihava south of Dhamtari) and conquered countries of Bhramaravadra (V V Mirashi identifies it with Bhramarakotya near Bastar), Kantara, Kusumabhoga (V V Mirashi identifies it with Kusmurra of Dhamtari), Kanda-dongara (V V Mirashi identifies it with former Bindra-Navagadh area where a range of hill goes by name Kanda) and Kakayara. He then established the town of Jagapalapura in the newly acquired territory. He had three brothers, Gajala, Jayatsimha and Devaraja. - composed by Thakkura Jasananda, son of Thakkura Jasodhara of Ayodhyapuriya family – engraved by artisan Ratnapala.

Rajeshvar Temple

Rajeshvar Temple – This east facing temple is located opposite to the western entrance of Rajiv-Lochan temple. Like Rajiv-Lochan and other temples in Chattisgarh, this temple is also constructed over a jagati which is 2 feet 8 inches high. The temple is constituted of a mandapa, antarala and garbha-griha. The mandapa, 23 feet by 18 feet, is supported on two rows of pillars and a row of pilaster on either side. Ganga and Yamuna are present on two opposite pilasters at the entrance. There are statues on other pilasters as well. Sanctum of the temple is 15.5 feet square from outside. From inside it is guarded by two dvarpalas. Inside the sanctum is a Shivalingam known as Rajeshvar. A Nandi is placed in a small hall in between the sanctum and mandapa.

Daneshvar Temple – It Shiva temple is situated very close to Rajeshvar temple on south. This temple is also built on a jagati and consists of a mandapa, antarala, Nandi-mandapa and a garbha-griha. Nandi-mandapa is not seen in any other temple at Rajim.

Jagannath Temple - Jagannath Temple is near northern entrance of Rajiv-Lochan temple. There is a wooden image of Jagannath in its sanctum. Tradition says that originally there used to be a community of castes here, all eating together without distinction similar to Jagannath Temple. Then the Lord Rajib Lochan appeared once in a dream of a priest and asked him to discontinue this as his pilgrims are no more going to Jagannath as they obtain all desires here. Since then this eating together without distinction service is discontinued.

Kuleshvar Temple – This Shiva temple is situated on an island formed by Pairi and Mahanadi rivers. Like all other temples of the site, this temple is also constructed upon a jagati (paltform) which is 17 feet high. However this jagati is octagonal instead of regular rectangular shape as seen in other temples. The temple is consisted of a sanctum and mandapa. Mandapa, 26 feet long, is supported on two rows of pillars and pilasters on side walls. Like mandapas of other temples at Rajim, this mandapa is also closed on sides. A female figure on outer pilaster is shown standing on a peacock. Cunningham suggests that this could be representation of Sarasvati as a river goddess.

Ramachandra Temple

Ramachandra Temple – This temple is built about 400 years back by Govind Lal, a banker and merchant from Raipur. It is said that it has been built by material brought from ruins from temples of Sirpur. Many pillars have life size statues as seen at Rajiv Lochan temple. Two pilasters depict statue of Ganga which suggests that these were probably brought from two different temple ruins as we have never seen any instance where Ganga or Yamuna is shown twice.

Shalabhanjika on a pillar in Ramachandra temple

Inscriptions - A short inscription reading Sri-Lokbala is found on one of the pilaster. However as these were brought from Sirpur so what this inscription refer to is hard to say. The characters used are of eighth-ninth century CE.

Other Temples – There are many temples at Rajim however these all are of not much architectural interest. Rajib Telin Temple is located west of Rajeshvar temple and has a sati stone like structure inside the sanctum. Two temples, Pancheshvar Mahadev and Bhuteshvar Mahadeva, stand side by side near the river bank. Someshvar Mahadev , a recent temple on the site of an ancient temple, is situated little away from the river in residential colony.

How to Reach – Rajim is about 45 km away from Raipur. Rajim has a small railway station and connected to Raipur with a passenger train. Raipur is the nearest airport. Public transports are frequently available from Raipur for Rajim. Raipur would be a good option for accommodation.

References:

Cunningham, Alexander (1872). Report of a Tour in Bundelkhand and Malwa and in the Central Provinces (Vol VII). Archaeological Survey of India. New Delhi.
Cunningham, Alexander (1881). Report on Tours in the Central Provinces and Lower Gangetic Doab in 1880-81 (Vol XVII). Archaeological Survey of India. New Delhi.
Mirashi, V V (1955). Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum Vol IV Part 2. Archaeological Survey of India. New Delhi.
Sampath, M D (2001). Epigraphs of Madhya Pradesh. Archaeological Survey of India. New Delhi.

Sirpur - An Icon of Dakshina-Kosala

2011-06-24T07:38:00.004+05:30

Introduction – As I will be taking up monuments of Chattisgarh region, hence it is necessary that we talk about this region in detail. Present region, most part, of Chattisgarh was known as Kosala/Maha-Kosala or sometimes Dakshina-Kosala in ancient times. The boundaries of these three ancient regions were very fluctuating and these overlapped on each other on time to time.

Brief history of Maha-Kosala – Alexander Cunningham defines Maha-Kosala as the region comprised of whole of upper valley of river Mahanadi and its tributaries from the source of river Narmada at Amarkantak on the north to source of Mahanadi river at Kanker on the south and from valley of Wen-Ganga river on the west to the Hadsa and Jonk rivers on the east. Hiuen Tsiang visited India in seventh century CE and he mentions the kingdom of Maha-Kosala comprising area of 6000 li or 1000 miles. He did not mention any name of the king but states that the king was a Buddhist but kshatriya. Cunningham mentions that very few Buddhist remains are found in Chattisgarh, however later excavations have unearthed a huge number of Buddhist viharas in Sirpur.

Cunningham identifies Adisathri of Ptolemy with Maha-Kosala. Ptolemy mentions a country of Adisasthri, bounded on the south by Adisathron mountain range and capital city at Sageda. Balanti-purgon, a fort in north east of Sageda, is also mentioned. Cunningham identifies Balanti-purgon with present Bandhavgarh which is a well known tiger reserve now. There is a fort inside this reserve and many statues and temple ruins are found inside this fort. He identifies Sageda with Chitrangadapura which was the capital of Babhruvahana, a Chedi king. Babhruvahana was a son of Arjuna, a Pandava of Mahabharata, with his wife, Chitrangada. Chitrangada was the daughter of a Chedi king, Chitravahana.

The capital of Chedi or Maha-Kosala kings was at Manipura on river Suktimati as mentioned in Mahabharata. The river is originated at Suktimal mountains hence its name Suktimati. Though this mountain range is among seven main mountains of ancient India however its identification is still not done. Cunningham states that local people say that Manipura is present Ratanpura as Mani and Ratan both means gem. However he did not agree with this local tradition as Ratanpura is not situated at any river. Most ancient inscriptions are found at Sirpur, Rajim and Aarang in Chattisgarh hence these are the places of antiquity. Sirpur is situated at the bank of Mahanadi river which makes it suitable candidate to be identified as Manipura. If this is correct then river Mahanadi should be same as river Suktimati of Mahabharata. Suktimal mountains will be the high range of mountains to the south of Sehoa from where Mahanadi, Pairi and Seonath rivers originate. This mountain might be same as Adisathron of Ptolemy.

The earliest inscriptional reference of Maha-Kosala comes from the Allahabad Pillar Inscription which mentions that the Gupta king Samudragupta (325-375 CE) defeated King Mahendra of Kosala which lies in Dakshinapatha. As many as six different dynasties witnessed their rise and fall in Maha-Kosala. Earliest one probably is known from single copper-plate grant which was discovered at Aarang near Raipur. It was issued by a king named Bhimasena II however no name of his dynasty is mentioned. However he is described as Rajarshitulya-Kula to claim high dignity. The grant is dated in Gupta Year 282 (601 CE) and issued from Suvarnnanadi (present Son river). Usage of the Gupta Era suggests that either the present king was a subordinate of the Gupta emperor or his ancestors were paying obeisance to the Gupta emperors. Bhimasena II was the sixth descendent of the founder Sura. If we take 20 years for each king then Sura would be ruling in 510 CE, and was contemporary of the Gupta king Bhanugupta. The genealogy of Bhimasena II is as follows: Sura, Dayita, Vibhisana, Bhimasena I, Dayitavarman II and Bhimasena II.

The next dynasty, which could be after Bhimasena II or his contemporary, is known from its copper-plate charters found at Bilaspur, Raipur and Raigarh. This suggests that they were ruling over a vast area in comparison to Bhimasena II. No name for the dynasty is mentioned and also they did not mention any date in their grants. As their capital was at Sarabhapura so the dynasty is known as Sarabhapuriya. V V Mirashi suggests that Sarabharaja, founder of this dynasty, was probably the same person who is referred as the maternal-grandfather of Goparaja who is mentioned in Bhanugupta’s Eran pillar inscription of the Gupta Year 191 (510 CE). But D C Sircar however suggests that Sarabharaja flourished from 461 to 480 CE and his son Narendra from 480 to 495 CE. As some of their charters are found at Sirpur so it might be their second capital. Genealogy after Sarabharaja is Narendra, Prasanna, Jayaraja, Pravarasena Sudevaraja and Vyaghraraja. Sarabhapura is not satisfactorily identified. D C Sircar who edited their grants did not identify this city however many other scholars have taken that Sarabhapura was near Sirpur only. Their inscriptions are only in their regnal years hence their exact dates cannot be satisfactorily determined. However it is assumed that they started their rule in later part of fifth century CE.

Panduvamsis or Somavamsis conquered Dakshina-kosala and ousted Sarabhapuriyas. Two houses of theirs were ruling over this area. One of them is known from a single charter issued by a king named Bharatabala who was ruling over Mekhala (Amarkantak). The charter is issued in his second regnal year and mentions donation on the bank of river Son. Nothing is known about his successors and it may be assumed that he or his successors were ousted by the Sarabhapuriyas who raised in power again.

Another Panduvamsi family was ruling over Sirpur. Udayana was the first king of this dynasty. He was succeeded by Indrabala. Nanna I succeeded him and he in turn was succeeded by Mahasiva Tivaradeva. He was the most successful king of this dynasty. He extended his kingdom to Utkala, Kosala and other nearby states. He was succeeded by his son Mahanannaraja or Nanna II. His uncle, Chandragupta, succeeded him. His son, Harshagupta, was married to Vasata, the daughter of Maukhari king Suryavarman of Magadha. His son from Vasata, Mahasivagupta alias Balarjuna, ascended the throne after Harshagupta. Mahasivagupta was a powerful king and enjoyed a very long rule as his Lodhia charter was issued in his fifty-seventh regnal year. Mahasivagupta ruled from Sirpur but whether his ancestors ruled from same place is not certain. Balarjuna’s younger brother, Ranakesari, was in constant struggle with the Sarabhapuriyas.

History of Sirpur – We have already seen few dynasties who ruled over Sirpur, probably as subordinates of the Imperial Guptas. But we cannot be very certain on this point as they did not mention their overlords, if they had any. Local tradition mentions Savaripura as the original name of Sirpur because here only Savari, a female mendicant of Ramayana, offered fruit to Lord Rama. As per Ramayana, Savari was residing on the bank of Pampa river to the west of Rishyamukha mountain. However there is no mention of any fruit offering by her to Rama in Ramayana hence it might be a later addition. If we accept this local tradition then Mahanadi should be same as Pampa and hills on east would be Rishyamukha. Cunningham however is reluctant in identifying Mahanadi as Pampa as he feels that identification with Suktimati is more appropriate.

Sripura or Sripur was the old name of this town as evident from many grants and inscriptions. Some traditions translate this Sripura into ‘the town of wealth’ as Sri is known as Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth, in Indian pantheon. Its architecture value was noticed by Dr Beglar when he visited this town in 1872. Lakshmana Temple and Surang were excavated during that time, After independence, Dr M G Dixit further carried our excavation on behalf of the University of Sagar during 1953 to 1955. During his exhibition were discovered Anandaprabhu Buddha Vihara and Swastika Vihara among other small temples. Shri A K Sharma and his assistant Mr Prabhat are doing excavations at present on behalf of Chattisgarh government. I was fortunate enough to get their acquaintance during my trip.

Epigraphs – General epigraphs discovered at Sirpur.
1. Sudevaraja copper-plate charter (Epigraphia Indica Vol XXXI) – Mentions a donation of a village, whose name is lost, to a brahmana of the Prasara gotra and the Taittiriya sakha. The donation was first made by the illustrious Nanna who cannot be identified. Seal of the plate bears the name of Maharaja Sudevaraja. The charter is dated in the seventh regnal year of the king.

Monuments – There are many monuments of interest at this small town. We will discuss few of these in detail as I was not able to cover all of them in my trip.

Gandhesvara Temple Entrance

Gandhesvara Temple – This Shiva temple is a later construction over the original place of an ancient temple. Cunningham mentions that the priests also did not try to enforce its antiquity when he visited the temple. The temple is without a platform and situated on the bank of river Mahanadi. Hence it was always in danger during floods and had suffered losses. This is a live temple and many pilgrims come here for worship. There is nothing of interest related to architecture but there are many loose images inside this temple. Many inscriptions are also found in this temple however none of those are foundation inscription.

Buddha under a tree inside the temple

Inside the temple, there is an image of Buddha under a tree which local people identify with an image of a king. Among the loose sculptures, Chamunda, Mahishasuramardini, Nataraja, Uma-Mahesvara, Trimurti group, Navagraha group are important. But layers of whitewash has hidden most of the features of these statues.

Inscriptions –
1. Stone built into plinth of temple (Indian Antiquary Vol XVII) - This inscription specifically mentions the name Gandhesvara and records the arrangement of the puja to the god by one Jejuraka, a subject of prince Sivagupta.
2. Stone built into plinth of temple (Indian Antiquary Vol XVII) - This inscription is engraved on lower part of above long slab and is written in 17 lines. It records similar arrangements as above and further says that Nagadeva and Kesava were assigned certain funds for providing garlands of flowers for worship of Shiva. It gives genealogical list as follows: Sivagupta alias Balarjuna, the son of Harshagupta, the son of Chandragupta, the son of Nanna, the son of Indrabala, the son of Udayana.
3. Stone on top of plinth of temple (Indian Antiquary Vol XVII) - This incomplete inscription mentions the name of composer as Sumangala, the son of Taradatta and of the mason Rishigupta.
4. Slab built into floor at entrance of temple (Indian Antiquary Vol XVII) – The inscription praises Shiva and mentions name of Balarjuna (Sivagupta). This inscription also mentions arrangement of flowers.

Lakshmana Temple

Lakshmana Temple – This ticketed monument is under protection of Archaeological Survey of India. Enclosed within a well maintained compound, this is one of the best brick temple of India. It is the most developed among the temples of the post-Gupta period and retains most of its original appearance. Krishna Deva writes, ’With its developed socle mouldings and its stout but slightly incurved shikhara, this temple marks a transition between the Gupta and the early medieval temples, anticipating several features of the latter’.

It stands on a platform which is 77 feet long, 39 feet broad and 6 feet high. The platform is built in stone however the temple is entirely made in brick, of average size 17”x9”x3”, except its door which is of stone. The temple has a garbha-griha(sanctum), antarala (vestibule) and mandapa (entrance hall). The oblong mandapa is completely in ruins except its pillar bases. Percy Brown suggests that this mandapa would have been a later addition. Remains of a brick wall round this mandapa suggests that the mandapa was covered on side with this wall. Cunningham mentions that parts of these pillars and pilasters were probably used in construction of Ramachandra temple at Rajim which was constructed about 300 years before of our time.

The jagati (platform) of the temple is made of dressed and simple flat stones. Present height of the temple is 45 feet from the platform but it would have been 60 feet high in its full glory, as suggested by Brown. Triangular opening above sanctum door is formed by overlapping bricks which is similar to the Great Temple at BodhGaya. Its breadth is same as of the door, 3 feet 3 inches, and it reached the height of 6 feet 3 inches with 25 courses of bricks.

Sanctum Door

Sanctum and its tower is quite intact, only upper portion of the shikhara is lost. Sanctum is 22 feet square outside and 9.75 feet square inside. Interior of the sanctum is plain and the inside of the shikhara has the appearance of an encased stepped pyramid with bricks jutting out at regular intervals. S N Mishra writes that the most outstanding feature of this temple is its massive door-frame in stone which adorns the entrance to the sanctum. The temple is dedicated to Vishnu as his avatars are found on door jambs. Cunningham reported a Vishnu statue lying outside the temple which was similar to the statue found at Eran. He suggests that it might be the main statue of the sanctum.

Shikhara on east side

Its shikhara is highly decorated with three large chaitya-niches (horse shoe like window) above the door. Bold designs of niches and pilasters are found all over the shikhara. Vertical bands of large chaitya-niches are intersected by horizontal bands of small chaityas. Amalakas are placed at the corners marking the start and end of a storey. Four such shikhara storeys have survived. The shikhara might be composed of seven such storeys. Percy Brown writes, ‘…distribution of its decorative elements, and the character of its construction generally, all of which denote artistic and technical knowledge of no mean order’.

Sanctum doorway has five bands. First, second and fourth bands have flower foliage decoration while fourth band displays loving couples and fifth has various incarnations of Vishnu. Center of the lintel has a large Sesasayi image of Vishnu with his two consorts on either side. The topmost stone slab above door lintel has various Krishna-leelas (scenes from Krishna’s life) depicted. Brown writes that the most noticeable feature is a deeply recessed false window in the center of each side; this is divided into panels by mullions, and each panel contains a carved pattern intended to represent open-work, evidently derived from a wooden lattice.

Inscriptions – The foundation inscription found in the debris of this temple is now in Raipur Museum.
1. Sirpur stone inscription in Raipur Museum (Epigraphia Indica Vol XI) – dated to eighth or ninth century CE on paleographical grounds - This slab is now in Raipur Museum and is the largest inscription found at Sirpur. The record contains two parts, first part is an eulogy of 23 verses and second part has rules for maintenance of the temple. The inscription begins with invocatory prose for Purushottama. Then few verses are dedicated to Narasimha, the man-lion incarnation of Vishnu. King Mahasivagupta with his mother and two ancestors is mentioned. Chandravamshi (lunar race, Somavamshi etc) king Mahasivagupta was the son of Harshagupta. The name of the father of Harshagupta is not readable. King Mahasivagupta is also known as Balarjuna owing to his proficiency with arms. His younger brother is known as Ranakesari. The inscription further mentions that his mother Vasata was the daughter of Suryavarman, the king of Magadha. After her husband died, she constructed a temple of Hari (Vishnu). The next seven verses praise her acts. The second part of the inscription mentions five villages, Todankana, Madhuvedha, Nalipadra, Kurapadra and Vanapadra, given for the maintenance of the temple. An additional village, Vargullaka, is given specifically to the God to meet expenses for his offerings. The inscription is composed by Chintaturanka Isana and engraved by certain Arya Gonna.

ASI Museum

ASI Museum – There is a small museum at the site of Lakshmana Temple. Many images which were excavated here are placed in this museum. One good thing, photography is allowed.

Rama Temple

Rama Temple – Opposite to Lakshmana Temple is Rama Temple was also built in brick but it is now in ruins. Not much is left of this temple except the walls of garbha-griha and mandapa. Few broken loose sculptures are placed inside mandapa and garbha-griha. Local guide may tell you that one of those image is of Lord Rama.

Baleshvar Mahadev Temple Group - The name of this excavated temple complex is probably put to commemorate the great king Mahasivagupta Balarjuna whose inscriptions are found all over Sirpur. He is also attributed to have built most of the monuments at this site. There are about three-four temples in this complex. All the temples are dedicated to Shiva. All the temples are built upon a jagati, high raise platform, similar to Lakshmana Temple.

Sanctum Door

The biggest temple of the complex has its sanctum door intact, though it seems that it was redone during the excavation. Ganga and Yamuna are seen on either side of the door. There are lady attendants also seen. No lintel has survived however there is a broken Shiva linga inside the sanctum. Many ruins of pillars and images are strewn around the site.

Surang – I missed this marvelous monument during my visit as I had no information about this at that time. This is a very peculiar structure with two garbha-grihas, one for Shiva and one for Vishnu.

Inscription –
1. Senakapat Inscription (Epigraphia Indica Vol XXXI) – No date is specified - The stone bearing this inscription was reported to be brought from one of the two Shiva temples on the western side of the village. It records the construction of a Shiva Temple and dedicated to a Shiva ascetic with a part of land. It is composed in the reign of Sivagupta who was a king of Pandava or Chandravamsa (lunar race) dynasty of south Kosala.

Entrance of a Vihara

Ananda Prabhu Vihara – Sirpur is known for its Buddha Viharas as many such building have come into light during recent excavations. The most famous is "Anand Prabhu Vihar" or ‘Anand Prabhu Kuti VIhara’, constructed by Bhikshu Anand Prabhu, a follower of Buddha, during the period of king Mahasivagupta Balarjuna. This vihara was excavated during 1953-55 excavation carried out by M G Dixit. The Vihar had 14 rooms and at the main entrance adored the Dwarapal carved in stone pillars on either side. There is an image of Buddha accompanied with Padampani who is shown carrying a lotus stalk in one hand and his another hand is in abhaya mudra. The Buddha image is six feet tall and he is depicted touching the earth hence called bhumisparsha-mudra.

Inscriptions –
1. Stone inscription (Epigraphia Indica Vol XXXI) – dated to seventh-eighth century CE on paleographical grounds – The inscriptions starts with praise of Sugata (Buddha). The object is to record the founding of a village and establishing a feeding house for the followers of the Buddha, during the reign of Mahasivagupta by one Anandaprabha. The poet who composed the inscription is Sumangala, son of Taradatta. The inscription was engraved by Prabhakara. Though M G Dikshit, the editor of the inscription, assigns the record to seventh-eighth century CE however the reign of king Mahasivagupta was suggested to be ninth century CE by Keilhorn.

Buddha in a Vihara

Swastik Vihara – This is another famous Buddhist vihara at Sirpur and it came into light during the excavations of 1953-55 by M G Dixit. It is situated near Ananda Prabhu Vihara. Locally known as Swastik Vihara as it resembles with the swastika symbol in its bird-eye view. There is a statue of Buddha inside the vihara. Buddha is shown with Padamapani who is carrying a chauri (fly-whisk) in one hand and another hand is on his waist.

Rakela Tal – This tank is located about a km from Gandhesvara Temple. There is a ruined fort on its south. Local traditions state that this tank has a paras stone (Philosopher’s Stone). A famous story about the tank goes that in ancient days a shepherd noticed a strange goat joins each day in his herd and left in evening. One evening he followed the goat and found that the goat went into the tank. He was standing wondering when suddenly a stone was thrown to him and a voice said, “This is the reward of your labor”. On seeing this stone, he struck it back to water with his axe shouting what kind of reward it was. But then he found that his axe has turned of gold. He looked for stone but in vain.

How to Reach – Sirpur is about 78 km away from Raipur on National Highway Number 6 on way to Sambalpur. There is a bifurcation at 61st km stone on this highway at village Kohari. Sirpur is 17 km from this point. One can also reach Sirpur from Mahasamund which is 29 km far. Mahasamund is the nearest railhead and Raipur is the nearest airport.

Accommodation - Sirpur does not have good options for accommodation, Raipur would be a good place to stay. There are many hotels to suit all budgets in Raipur. Hotel Piccadily used to be the best option few years back however now it has lost its shine, I stayed there however do not recommend this hotel.

References:
1. Brown, Percy (1959). Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindu Periods). D B Taraporevala. Mumbai.
2. Cunningham, Alexander (1872). Report of a Tour in Bundelkhand and Malwa and in the Central Provinces (Vol VII). Archaeological Survey of India. New Delhi.
3. Cunningham, Alexander (1881). Report on Tours in the Central Provinces and Lower Gangetic Doab in 1880-81 (Vol XVII). Archaeological Survey of India. New Delhi.
4. Deva, Krishna (1969). Temples of North India. National Book Trust. New Delhi. ISBN 9788123719702.
5. E Hultzsch (1981). Epigraphia Indica Vol XI. Archaeological Survey of India. New Delhi.
6. Rai, Uday Narayan (2006). Bhartiya Kala (in Hindi). Lokbharati Prakashan. Allahabad. ISBN 8180310973
7. Sampath, M D (2001). Epigraphs of Madhya Pradesh. Archaeological Survey of India. New Delhi.

Sittanavasal - The Legacy of Chitrasutra

2011-05-02T20:36:00.004+05:30

Introduction – The history of Sittanavasal or Pudukkottai region can be traced from very ancient times as many burial sites are found in nearby areas. It would have been a Jaina pilgrimage site in olden days as supported by the presence of Jaina beds on top of the hill. Jaina character of the site continues till ninth-tenth century CE as beds were carved out in those times for ascetics. T N Ramachandran suggests that the present name Sittanavasal is probably derived from Sanskrit words ‘Siddhanam’ + ‘vasah’ which means ‘abode of siddhas’. However K R Srinivasan states that Sittanavasal is a Tamil name and was in use during the Sangam period.

Monuments – There are two ticketed monuments under ASI (Archaeological Survey of India) at Sittanavasal. There are few shrines in the village which are dedicated to village gods.

Jaina Beds

Jaina Beds (Eladipattam) - A strenuous path takes you to the top of a low rising hillock where seventeen polished bed are carved out under a low hanging roof. These beds were used by Jaina ascetics who were involved in severe austerities such as kayotsarga and sallekhana. These beds have a raised portion at one end forming a kind of pillow. There are inscriptions on few of the beds which date from third century BCE. There are inscriptions of ninth century CE which suggests that the site was in use at least till that time.

Brahmi Inscription

Inscriptions –
1. No 1 of the Inscriptions of the Pudukkottai State - On a stone bed – Written in Brahmi in 2 lines – dated to beginning of third century BCE – Records that Chirupochil Ilayar made the Atitnam (Adhittana) for Itan who was a kavidi born at Kumuthur in Eomi-nadu.

2. No 388 of the Annual Report on Epigraphy 1914/No 7 of the Inscriptions of the Pudukkottai State – On a stone bed – Written in Tamil, Brahmi in 7 lines - dated to eighth or ninth century CE – The label gives the names of some persons (probably Jaina ascetics): Kadavulan Tirunilan of Tolakkunram, Tiruppuranan, Tittaichchanan, Tiruchchattan, Sripurnachandiran, Niyatakaran Pattakkali and Kadavulan.

Cave Temple

Arivar Koil – It is not very sure if this place was ever in control of the Pallava-s however a cave temple similar to Pallava style was excavated in seventh-eight century CE, probably, and was dedicated to Jaina tirthankaras. It was an accepted fact that the Pallava king Mahendravarman I (580-630 CE) was a Jaina and later he converted himself to Shaiva under influence of saint Appar. In the similar manner, a Pandya king also got converted from Jaina sect to Shaivism under influence of another saint Sambandar, who was contemporary of Appar. Is this cave excavated by Mahendravarman I when he was Jaina? In this case, the inscription at Mandagapattu which proposes that it was the first cave by the king does not hold true. If the inscription at Mandagapattu is taken in same manner as suggested by K R Srinivasan that it declares that Mandagapattu was the first such shrine constructed by the Pallava king, then it become evident that Sittanavasal cave was probably a work of the Pandya artists. In that case it could be the work of either the Pandya king Maran Sendan (654- 670 CE) or Arikesari Maravarman (670-700 CE). It is suggested that it was Maravarman who also got converted from Jaina to Shaiva under influence of Sambandar. Extension of the cave in ninth century under a Pandya king suggests that though Pandya kings were Hindus but they supported other religions without any malice.

This west facing rock-cut temple has been excavated on the western face of a rock. Originally it was excavated with a ardha-mandapa and a cubical cell. This ardha-mandapa is supported on two pillars of characteristics Mahendra-order. It measures, with its ardha-mandapa, 20.5 m long, 2.28 m wide and 2.5 m high. The cubical cell measures 2.89 m side. The shrine was extended with a pillared mandapa during the reign of the Pandya king Srivallabha (815-862 CE). However this mandapa was already destroyed when renovation was taken over for this in 1942. On the base of the ruined mandapa, a new mandapa was erected during the renovation at this site with four pillars taken from another ruined mandapa at Kudimiyanmalai.

Parshvanatha

Jaina acharya on northern lateral wall

North and south walls of the ardha-mandapa have an image of Jaina tirthankara. Tirthankara on north side does not carry any cognizance so it’s hard to identify him. However there is an inscription on nearby pillar which reads Sri-Tiruvasiriyam, meaning ‘revered teacher’. This suggests that he was not someone from the twenty-four tirthankaras but some other revered teacher. Or it is also probable that he represent one of the twenty-four teachers and his cognizance was painted instead of carved on the image. Tirthankara on southern wall is shown seated under a serpent hood suggesting that he is the twenty-third Jaina tirthankara, Parsvanatha. An inscription on nearby pillar face reads [Ulo]kaditan, meaning ‘ruler of the world’, which aptly appropriates with the image.

Jaina acharyas in sanctum cell

There are three images, seated under umbrellas, of tirthankaras or teachers inside the sanctum, on back wall. Image on northern end and in center has two umbrellas above but image of southern end has only one umbrella. This suggests that the former two might have been images of some tirthankaras while the latter would be of some revered teacher. However as there are no cognizance on any image so it is hard to identify any one of these. There is a possibility that the cognizance were painted on the images, and if it is so, there is no trace of those paintings at present. Ceiling of the sanctum was once covered with paintings however at present very few traces are left. Stella Kramrisch reports that there were two layers of painting, one over other, on the ceiling. She suggests that both the layers were done at the same time however K R Srinivasan reports that the first layer was coeval with the cave however the second layer was done probably during the extension carried out in ninth century CE. There is a unique vibration/echo effect observed when you repeat 'Om' sound inside the sanctum. If you are not able to feel this then ask the caretaker of the site as he is very good in doing this.

Paintings – To the external world, paintings at Ajanta Caves are probably the only examples of Indian Murals however extensive studies carried out all around India in this dimension has proved that the tradition which was started at Ajanta was actually started way back in ancient times. And it did not end with Ajanta but carried forward by people of different faiths at many parts of India. Oral traditions which were probably carried from much ancient times were first documented in Kamasutra of Vatsyayan which is dated to third century CE. He defines ‘shadanga’ or ‘six limbs’ of Indian painting art. A later but more elaborate work, Chitrasurta of Vishnudharmottara Purana, dated to fifth century CE, details about the techniques and art of painting. Mention of various kinds of paintings is found in old Sanskrit literature. Malvikagnimitram and Abhigyanashakuntalam of Kalidasa talks about portrait paintings of their heroines. Uttara Rama Charitam, a drama written by Bhavabhuti in sixth century CE, has a whole scene of the first act dedicated in describing a picture hall where various paintings of Ramayana were painted.

Sittanavasal is the earliest example of Jaina paintings. These paintings came into the attention of scholars after an inscription was published in ARE (Annual Report of Epigraphy) 1904. An earliest study was carried out by Venkataranga Raju, the then curator of the Pudukkottai Museum, who made water color reproductions of these murals in 1910. T A Gopinatha Rao reported to his friend Dubreuil in 1919, “These paintings are as old as the shrine and are in fairly good state of preservation and need being copied fully”. Dubreuil later reported that the cave was a work of the Pallava king Mahendravarman I (580-630 CE), probably based upon the style of pillars. He suggested that the ‘lotus tank’ painting is probably related to some event in Jaina history and the paintings of dancing girls to those of devadasis or dancers of the temple. However we do not have any instance of devadasis in Jaina temples.

As water color copies of Venkataranga were not appropriate so Rama Prasad of Bharat Kala Parishad made another attempt to copy these murals in water color in 1925. The idea of the Pallava origin, as suggested by Dubreuil, of these frescoes was carried forward by N C Mehta and T N Ramachandran who discussed these frescoes in their respective papers and studies. It was T N Ramachandran who suggested that the lotus tank probably depicts khatikabhumi region of Samavasarana. Stella Kramrisch agrees with the identification by T N Ramachandran about the lotus tank mural. She also agrees with T A Gopinatha Rao that the paintings were coeval with the excavation of the cave. K R Srinivasan was involved in renovation work which was carried out in 1942. He agrees with Dubreuil about the Pallava features of the cave and suggests that the cave underwent some modification under the Pandya rule as suggested by an inscription.

Apsara on northern pillar (image - Ashok Krishnaswamy)

There are four beautiful article on paintings of Sittanavasal written by Vijay on www.poetryinstone.in. I would strongly recommend those article as you will get immense information on these paintings. These articles are linked in web references down in this article. I will talk only in brief about these paintings. Many thanks to Mr Ashok Krishnaswamy who permitted me to use his pictures in thsi article.

There are two dancers painted on western face of the two pillars such as greeting people who enter the cave. These apsaras or celestial maidens are carved very suggestively however the images are much weathered now. Only upper portion of the dancers remain. Apsara on northern pillar is shown in a dance posture known as Talasampohita Karna as suggested by Thomas. In this posture, left hand is stretched across of breasts to reach waist portion on the right while the right hand is bent at elbow and folded upwards near breasts similar to abhaya mudra.A dance posture or karnana as defined in Natyashastra of Bharata is about the position of hands and legs. As only torso portion remains of this painting hence position of legs is not very clear. T N Ramachandran identifies this posture as Latavrischika. Behind her are shown clouds such as she is dancing in sky and probably coming downwards to the earth. Her hair are tied together and is adorned with varieties of flowers. She wears few necklaces around her neck. Though her torso portion only remains however it seems that she is wearing clothes below her waist however her upper portion is bare.

Apsara on southern pillar (image - Ashok Krishnaswamy)

Thomas suggests that the Apsara on southern pillar is shown in a dance posture known as Ardharecita Karana. In this posture, the left hand is stretched outside while right hand is folded against breasts. However this posture is very similar to Bhujangatrasita Karna which is very properly depicted in an early Nataraja form at Seeyamangalam. Though leg positions of the apsara are not very clear however it seems that her one leg is raised up while other is rested on platform. This kind of leg position is usually seen in Bhujangatrasita Karana, however I am not an expert on dance karanas. She wears a tiara and flowers garlands over her shoulders. Clouds are portrayed behind thus suggesting her celestial character.

Royal Couple (image - Ashok Krishnaswamy)

On the same pillar, on north face, is a painting of a royal couple with a monk. K R Srinivasan identifies this painting with the meeting between Ilan Gautaman and the Pandya King, Srivallabha, accompanied with his queen. Ilan carried out repair and extension of this shrine during the reign of the Pandya king, Srivallabha, hence it is not strange that the king came to pay homage and check out the work. Queen is depicted shorter than the king which is as per the canons where a lady is usually depicted shorter than a man. King is wearing a long crown and many ornaments on his chest. Only face of the queen is shown as she stands in shadow of her husband. There is a cornice with kudu behind the king and queen, which suggests that they have come to pay tribute to the shrine. Though we do not see any kudu now however the original extended mandapa is destroyed and the present one is only done in 1942 during renovation of this shrine.

Samavasarna (image - Ashok Krishnaswamy)

Most of the ceiling of the mandapa is covered with a mural painting of a lotus tank which has been identified as Khatikabhumi region of Samavasarana of Jaina mythology. This Khatikabhumi represents a region filled with lake. A lake has been painted in this mural depicting a scene of a dawn perhaps. This lake is mostly filled up with lotus flowers. These flowers attract viewer’s attention due to their sheer size and bright colors. This bright color fades gradually towards inside of flower. These flowers are depicted in various stages of development, from a bud to a well blown flower. The bright red lotus with green leaves and thin stem presents a very pleasant sight for eyes.

There are many fishes swimming across this lake amidst the lotuses. Thomas suggests that these fishes are mostly of murrel category as evident from their size and colors. He states that murrel fish has been associated with marutam region where there size indicates the prosperity of the town. There is a crocodile as well among fishes who is observing the activities around it. Thomas states that crocodile is associated with neytal (ocean) region in Sangam poetry. Crocodiles are not considered danger for human beings during the Sangam period. There are many birds shown perched on leaves. Thomas suggests that these resemble with water-hen which are very frequent in Tamilnadu ponds. As these do not have webbed legs so water-hen seems to be appropriate identification. They are shown in a state of anxiety as they feel afraid for their chicks and hence they are whipping their wings so that to be ready for a fly if danger approaches.

There are three buffalos in this lake, one totally submerged and two in state of getting out of the lake as men approach. There are three men in the lake who are shown collecting flowers. Elephants are shown carrying lotus stems and in process of handing those to nearby men. One of them is holding a basket to place flowers into it. These men probably represent Jaina monks who are getting flowers for offerings to their teachers. Smile on their faces suggest that they are content with their booty.

Thomas points that Samavasarana is usually depicted in full but not in single regions. Hence identification of this mural with ‘khatikabhumi’ is based upon very slim evidence. He further suggests that the Tamil Jaina literature composed around the same time associate lotus flower with Arukan, the jina. Arukan is called as Thamaraippuvin mel sentran meaning ‘one who walked on the lotus’ and Thandamarai mel nadanthan meaning ‘ one who walked on the cold petals of the lotus’ etc. This suggests that a lotus offering to Jaina teachers was considered very auspicious and hence a depiction of lotus collection in this shrine is most appropriate.

Samavasarana – Samavasarana (sama + avasarana) which means equal opportunities for all. Samavasarana, in Jaina literature, is used for an assembly of a tirthankara. This assembly is in form of an ordered congregation of different beings assembled to behold the thirthankara and hear his discourses. When these different beings, humans, animals and gods, gather together at one place for one purpose, this eliminates differences among them and place them on equal platform thus forming a Samavasarana. A Samavasarana can be taken as a tirth, revered place, which is made holy with the presence of a tirthankara.

Art of constructing a Samvasarana is detailed in Jaina literature. These scriptures explain what is Samavasarana, how it is created, who creates it, when it is created and how long it is held by a tirthankara. Coming under the aura of a tirthankara is everybody’s aim and to accommodate this a Samavasarana is constructed. It is in form of a platform or a pavilion with three concentric circles and their well defined properties. Sometimes this could be a square instead of circular in shape. A Samavasarana is constructed when an ascetic attains keval jnana (ultimate knowledge). Twenty-fourth and the last tirthankar, Lord Mahavira, attained this kewal jnana after severe penance of twelve and a half years. A Samavasarana was constructed to commemorate this occasion.

The Mahardhik gods inform the Abhiyoga gods about the place (village, town etc) where a Samavasarana is to be constructed. Then Abhiyoga gods clean an area of one yojana (approximately 12 square km). They sprinkle fragranced water and flowers and make area suitable for holy congregation. Then Vyantar gods construct four gateways with gems having various auspicious figures on these. These gems with inlaid figures are constructed by Bhavanpati gods.

Innermost enclosure and its decoration is constructed by the king of Vaimanik gods while the outermost enclosure is constructed by the king of Jyotishka gods. Ishan gods then plant an Ashok tree which should be twelve times the height of the tirthankara. This tree is planted on a platform, Gandhakuti, constructed with gems and on its center is installed a throne. Over the throne are constructed three canopies. Balindra and Chamar gods stand on either side of the throne with fly-whisks. In the last, Vyantar gods installed the wheel of religion at some distance in front of the throne. This completes the construction of the pavilion.

A more elaborate plan is specified in ‘Paintings in Tamilnadu’ by I J Thomas. Enclosure around the central Gandhakuti is called Lakshmivara-mandapa where twelve niches for various people. There are seven different regions around this Gandhakuti, each of which is enclosed by a rampart (vedika). These are Chaityaprasada Bhumi for palaces and temples, Khatika Bhumi for lakes, Valli Bhumi for forests, Upavana Bhumi for gardens, Dhavja Bhumi for flags, Kalpavriksha Bhumi for Kalpavrikshas (wish fulfilling tree of heaven) and last Bavana Bhumi for pavilions. A person has to pass through these seven regions to reach his repective niche to hear sermon of the tirthankara.

The tirthankara enters into it through its eastern gate and take his seat in the innermost circle facing east. Gods create three replicas of the tirthankara and place in other three directions so that he is equally visible to whole assembly. Senior most principle disciples sits near the feet of the tirthankara while senior gandharvas sit near his feat in south-east direction. Other gandharvas sit at his other sides. Then enter omniscient ascetics, Kewal Jnanis, who enter through the eastern gate and circumambulate the tirthankara first finally sitting behind gandharvas. Then enter other endowed ascetics like Manahparyav Jnanis, Avadhi Jnanis, Fourteen Purvadhars and other Purvadhars who circumambulate thrice around the tirthankara and take their seats behind Kewal Jnanis.

Then enter female ascetics and stand behind Vaimanik gods’ seats. Then enter other goddesses, from eastern gate come goddesses from Vaimanik dimension and stand behind common ascetics, from southern gate come goddesses from Bhavanpati, Vyantar and Jyotishka dimensions and stand in south-western direction in the said order of entrance. Then enter gods from these three dimensions, Bhavanpati, Vyantar and Jyotishka, from eastern gate and take their seats in north-west direction in same order. Then enter gods from Vaimanik dimensions, from northern gate, with their attendants and families. This is how the first enclosure is occupied. The second enclosure is occupied with animals who have five senses. The third enclosure is used to park vehicles of gods and others who come to attend Samavasarana.

Inscriptions – There are many inscriptions, mostly small label inscriptions, in and around this cave shrine. Few of these are detailed below.

1. No 328 of the Annual Report on Epigraphy 1960-61 – On the sloping edge of the rock to the south of the cave on the western slope of the central hill – Written in Tamil – dated to seventh century CE – This label reads as :Sri-pirutivi[na]chchan.

2. No 331 of the Annual Report on Epigraphy 1960-61 – On the sloping edge of the rock to the south of the cave on the western slope of the central hill – Written in Tamil – dated to seventh century CE – This label reads as : Vitivali.

3. No 324 of the Annual Report on Epigraphy 1960-61 – On the northern side of the base of the verandah of the cave – Written in Tamil – dated to eighth century CE – This label reads as : Sriyankala.

4. No 368 of the Annual Report on Epigraphy 1904/No 45 of the South Indian Inscriptions vol XIV/No 398 of the South Indian Inscriptions vol XVII – On the rock south of the cave temple – Written in Tamil in 17 lines – damaged - dated to unknown regnal year of the Pandya king Sirivalluvan (Srivallabha), approximately to 815 CE – Records that Ilan-Gautaman (who is referred to as an asiriyan of Madurai) repaired the agamandapa of the temple of Annalvayil and built the mukha-mandapa in front of it on behalf of the Pandya king Sirivalluvan (Srivallabha) who had the title Avanipasekharan. Some gifts of land also appear to have been made to the priests of the temple, the details of which are not clear as the record is damaged. The record is composed of verse.

5. No 369 of the Annual Report on Epigraphy 1904/No 399 of the South Indian Inscriptions Vol XVII – On the rock south of cave temple – Written in Tamil in 3 lines – fragmentary - dated to eighth-ninth century CE – Details not available

6. No 325 of the Annual Report on Epigraphy 1960-61 – On the eastern face of the northern pillar in the verandah of the cave temple – Written in Tamil – dated to ninth century CE – The label reads: Sri-Tiruvasiriyam

7. No 326 of the Annual Report on Epigraphy 1960-61 – On the eastern face of the southern pillar of the cave temple – Written in Tamil - dated to ninth century CE – the label reads Sri [Ulo]kadittan

8. No 367 of the Annual Report on Epigraphy 1960-61 – On the sloping side of the rock to the south of the cave temple – Written in Tamil – fragmentary - dated to ninth century CE – Only Tirukko can be read

9. No 369 of the Annual Report on Epigraphy 1904/No 399 of the South Indian Inscriptions Vol XVII – On the rock south of the cave temple – Written in Tamil in 3 lines – fragmentary - dated to eighth-ninth century CE – Details not available

10. No 370 of the Annual Report on Epigraphy 1904/No 400 of the South Indian Inscriptions Vol XVII – On the rock south of the cave temple – Written in Tamil in 5 lines – very damaged - dated to ninth century CE – Appears to record the renovation of a structure

11. No 329 of the Annual Report on Epigraphy 1960-61 – On the sloping edge of the rock to the south of the cave temple – Written in Tamil – fragmentary - dated to tenth century CE – The label may be read as Sri Tiruvi[ra]ma[n]

12. No 330 of the Annual Report on Epigraphy 1960-61 - On the sloping edge of the rock to the south of the cave temple – Written in Tamil - dated to tenth century CE – The label reads as [Sri]sikayavan

How to Reach – Sittannavasal is located on Pudukkottai-Annavasal-Viralimalai main road about 16 km from Pudukkottai. The village lies to the right of the road from Pudukkottai to Annavasal. There are few buses plying on this route, better to take a private taxi.

References:
1. Havell, E B (1908). Indian Sculpture and Painting. London. John Murray.
2. Kramrisch, Stella (1954). The Art of India. London. The Phaidon Press.
3. Latha, V (2005). Cave Temples of Pandya Country: Art and Ritual. New Delhi. Sharada Publishing House. ISBN 8188934224
4. Mahalingam, T V (1991). A Topographical List of Inscriptions in the Tamilnadu and Kerala States Vol VI. New Delhi. S Chand & Company Ltd.
5. Srinivasan, K R (1996). Temples of South India. New Delhi. National Book Trust of India. ISBN 8123718675
6. Thomas, I Job (2010). Paintings in Tamilnadu: A History. Chennai. Oxygen Boks. ISBN 9788184934878

Web References: (all references retrieved on 02/05/2011)
1. Samavasarna on Jaina World
2. The Legacy of Ajantha by Benoy K Behl, Frontline Vol 21 Issue 21, 2004
3. Sittanavasal on Wondermondo
4. The Lost Art of Sittanavasal Part 1 on www.poetryinstone.in
5. The Lost Art of Sittanavasal Part 2 on www.poetryinstone.in
6. Sittanavasal - The Zenith of Painting Part 1 on www.poetryinstone.in
7. Sittanavasal - The Zenith of Painting Part 2 on www.poetryinstone.in
8. Life of Appar on Tamil Arts Academy
9. ASI article on Sittanavasal Cave Temple
10. ASI article on Sittanavasal Jaina Beds
11. Sittanavasal on www.pudukkottai.info

Narthamalai - An Enigma of Art

2011-04-29T21:34:00.001+05:30

Introduction – Narthamalai region consists of nine small hillocks, Mela-malai, Kottai-malai, Alurutti-malai, Kadambar-malai, Paraiyan-malai, Uvachchan-malai, Man-malai, Bommadi-malai and Pon-malai. There is a thin forest surrounding south-east part of the region and hence it comes under the forest reserve area. As per a mythological legend when Hanuman was carrying Sanjeevani hill, few shrubs fell over this part of region making it famous for a variety of magic shrubs. An another legend stated in Perungalur Sthala-puranam states that the name Narthamalai is derived from the sage Narada, and calls it Naradar-malai.

Narthamalai Region

Narthamalai, which at present is a very small village, was a sprawling trading center in olden days. The name Narthamalai is probably derived from Nagarattar-malai where Nagarattar refer to a mercantile community, also known as Nattukkottai Chettiyars. As per a Chola inscription, a Nagarattar sold a land for conducting daily worship in the larger cave temple. Narthamalai is referred as Annavayil-kurram, a sub-division in Keralantaka-valanadu alias Konadu during the regime of the Chola king Rajaraja I. Later this region is referred as Irattappadi-kondachola-valanadu during the regime of the Chola king Kulottunga I. The region is referred as Telingakulakalapuram alias Kulottungacholapattinam during the Pandya rule.

Before the advent of the Pallava-s, Narthamalai would have been under the early Chola-s or early Pandya-s. From the time of the Pallava-s, from 7th to 9th century CE, it was under the sway of the Muttaraiyar-s who were the vassals of the Pallava kings. Once Pandya-s were on rise, Muttaraiyar-s changed their loyalty from the Pallava-s to Pandya-s. In the last decade of the ninth century CE, the Chola-s washed out the Pallava-s completely and took over the control over the vast area of Tamilnadu. Within the span of hundred years, they also wiped out the Pandya-s and became the sole sovereignty of the southern part of India, mostly Tamilnadu.

Monuments – There are many monuments of interest at Narthamalai. This article will talk about three monuments situated on Mela-malai hillock.

Smaller Shiva Cave

Small Shiva Cave - This cave shine originally consisted of a small cell carved out of a rock. However an inscription on its base suggests that it was excavated by Chattan Paliyili, a Muttaraiya king. His daughter later expanded this cave shrine with a mukha-mandapa, a Nandi-mandapa and a balipitha. Inside the cell is a Shiva-lingam which seems to be a later addition. Shiva lingam carved out of mother rock is a characteristic feature of Muttaraiya/Pandya caves however this cave does not confirm to that custom.

Entrance of the cave has been modeled in simple lintel and pilaster style. Two dvarpala images are placed at the entrance however these images are not carved on mother rock but on loose stones. There is enough space on either side of the entrance on the rock however no dvarpala image was tried during the original construction. It is most probable that these images were placed during the expansion of the shrine. An image of Nandi is placed on mukha-mandapa platform at present. The base of the platform is simple except a gana (dwarf) row above kumudam. These ganas are shown in various actions mostly of dancing.

Inscriptions –

1. No 365 of the Annual Report on Epigraphy 1914/No 63 of the South Indian Inscriptions vol XII/No 19 of the Inscriptions of the Pudukkottai State/No 395 of the South Indian Inscriptions vol XVII – On the north base of the ruined mandapa in front of the cave – Written in Tamil in 19 lines – dated to seventh regnal year of the Pallava king Nripatungavarman, approximately to 875 CE – Records the excavation of the rock-cut temple by Chattan Paliyili, son of Videlvidugu Muttaraiya. Former’s daughter Paliyili Siriyanangai, the wife of Minavan Tamiladiyaraiyan alias Palan Anantan, expanded it by constructing a mukha-mandapa rishabhakkottil with a rishabha, balipitha. The lady also made an endowment of tax free land entrusted to Chavainjattan of Peruvilattur in Annavayilkurram for worship and offerings to the god of the temple the Pattudaiyan Uruttiran Teyapikki was asked to take care of charity.

Larger Shiva Cave

Large Shiva Cave (Vishnu Cave) – This larger cave is excavated opposite to structural temple and is probably one of the largest cave of the Pudukkottai region. It is referred as Thirumerkoil in a Chola inscription and Patinen-bumi-vinnagar in a Pandya inscription. Its east facing front façade is supported on two pillars and two pilasters forming three entrances. The pillars are almost square from top to bottom however the architects tried to style these pillars in typical Mahendra-order with square base and top and middle octagonal section. Such demarcation between square and octagonal section can be seen on southern pillar. A cubical cell is excavated in middle of the back wall. There is a mutilated square Shiva-linga base inside this cell.

There is an extended mandapa constructed in front of this cave however only base of this mandapa has survived. There are few loose sculptures lying in front of the mukha-mandapa of the cave. Two dvarpalas, one on either side of the middle entrance, are also sculpted on loose stones. Dvarapalas are very much mutilated and it seems that these were later additions probably during the Chola rule. A sapta-matrika panel, broken in two parts, also lies at the entrance. Sapta-matrikas are without Veerbhadra and Ganesha. An image of Shiva as Veenadhara and an image of Chandesha is also seen placed at the entrance.

Vishnu Images inside cave

Inside the rectangular mukha-mandapa of the cave, there are twelve nearly identical images of Vishnu carved on lateral and back walls. There is one image on both lateral walls and ten images, five on either side of the entrance to the central cell, on the back wall. They all are shown standing over a lotus pedestal. They carry a sankha (conch) and a chakra (discus) in their rear hands while one front hand is in abhaya mudra while another front hand is rested on waist (katyavalambita). As there are twelve such image hence these could be a representation of dvadash (twelve) aditya-s of Hindu mythology.

Man-lion Sphinx

A most interesting feature of the cave is seen in the platform of its extended mandapa. A vyala/yali row above kumudam is one of the most exquisite representation of these mythological animals. Makara heads protrude out from each corner while elephants and vyalas occupy the whole side. There are many kinds of vyalas seen, some with the head of a lion and some with the head of an elephant. Most amazingly there are few vyalas who have shown with a human head having striking resemblances with the Sphinx of Egypt. One such early representation was seen in Krishna Mandapa at Mahabalipuram where I suggested whether it might be a representation of the Pallava king Narasimhavarman I. Raja Deekshithar has done a very nice study of these Sphinx like figures in the Indian art.

A mutilated Shiva-linga base in the central cell and so many Vishnu images in mandapa, quite interesting indeed. V Latha suggests that it could be that during Vaishnava insurgence the Shaiva feature, Shiva linga, of the cave was mutilated to convert it into a Vaishnava shrine. She suggests that this change would have been done before the commencement of Vijayala-Choleeshvaram temple. As a Shiva cave was changed into a Vaishnava shrine hence construction of a Shiva temple was necessary. However there is one issue with this theory, why to create a new temple instead of restoring the lingam in the cave if the sole purpose of the temple was to get the Shiva worship reinstated?

She further suggests that all the inscriptions found here refer only to Shiva but none to Vishnu hence it is clear that no ruler patronized the Vishnu cave. However we have a Pandya inscription where the cave has been referred as Vaishnava cave only. I feel that it could be a case that the cave was indeed dedicated to Shiva and the twelve images in mandapa represent twelve aditya-s. Clashes between Shaiva and Vaishnava sects were not very prominent during the rule of Vijayala-Chola or better we say during the tenth century CE. In such a case how to explain mutilation of Shiva-linga? It can not be a work of Muslims as they would have destroyed the Vishnu images as well.

Inscriptions –

1. No 125-A of the Inscriptions of the Pudukkottai State - On the molded base in front of the cave – Written in Tamil in 54 lines – damaged and incomplete - dated to forty-fifth regnal year of the Chola king Rajakesarivarman alias Kulottunga-Choladeva (Kulottunga I), approximately to 1115 CE – States that the members of the nagaram of Telungakulakalapuram in Annavayil-kurram of Irattappadi-kondachola-valanadu made a deed for provision of daily food offerings to god Karumanikkalvar of the Tirumerkoyil temple of the city. According to this agreement, Mudikondachola-Telungaiyarayan, a merchant of this city was directed to pay 75 kalams of paddy annually to the above temple by cultivating the lands which he himself reclaimed. The merchant was invested with the right of kudinina-devadana over the lands.

2. No 364 of the Annual Report on Epigraphy 1904/No 364 of the South Indian Inscriptions vol XVII/No 281 of the Inscriptions of the Pudukkottai State – On the rock of the north of this cave – Written in Tamil in 31 lines – dated to twelfth regnal year of the Pandya king Maravarman alias Sundara Pandyadeva (Sundara I), approximately to 1228 CE – Records the setting up of images of Patinenbhumi-vinnagar-emberuman and his consort in the Tirumerkoyil temple at Telingakulakalapuram alias Kulottungacholapattinam, and the gift of 5 ma and 3 kanis of land, freed from all dues by the nagaram of the town for food offerings and other daily requirements for services. The latter portion of the record mentions the dues to be paid at the time of marriages for the temple repairs to be collected by a Vilakkattaraiyan at the following rates: 200 kasu for the bride’s house and 180 kasu from the bridegroom’s house. In addition to this 120 kasu were to be paid when the bride went to set up her new family.

3. No 282 of the Inscriptions of the Pudukkottai State – On the same rock – Written in Tamil in 46 lines – very much damaged - dated to twelfth regnal year of the Pandya king Maravarman alias Sundara Pandya I, approximately to 1228 CE – Appears to record provisions made for conducting festivals in the temple of Vijayalaya-Cholisvaramudaiyar at the town by the nagaram of Kulottungacholapattinam. It seems a numbers of persons undertook to conduct the festivals in turn, each for one day.

Vijayala Choleesvaram Complex

Vijayala Choleeshvaram Temple – This west facing structural temple is the main attraction of this site. The temple is constructed in parivara-shrine style with eight subsidiary shrines around the central structure. The central shrine holds an important position for temple architecture studies. The temple is consisted of a mandapa (hall), antarala(vestibule) and garbha-griha (sanctum). The adhisthana (platform) is simple in nature. It has upapitham, upanam, kumudam, kandam and agrapattiyal, from bottom to top. There is no vyala row on the agrapattiyal block as seen on platforms of the cave mandapas. Pilasters rise above agrapattiyal forming deep niches on vimana and shallow niches on mandapa. However all niches are empty. Corbels are placed on square protruding abacus. Bhuta/gana row is seen under cornice which is mounted above the corbels. Kudus in single and pair are carved on the cornice.

Vimana of Central Shrine

Its tri-tala (three storeys) vimana is square at base and rises to three storeys, diminishing in size, which are squares as well. Storey above the mandapa and vimana has similar architecture as of the base but there is a vyala/yali row on agrapattiyal of this storey. The roof is formed with regular arrangement of karna-kuta (square shrine placed on corners) and sala (oblong shrine placed on sides). Kudus are carved on these shrines with an image placed below the kudu. The image is big enough to cover the niche formed by pilasters of this storey. There is no bhuta/gana row under its cornice. Second storey is reduced in size but constructed in same fashion as of the basement. So here is seen a bhuta/gana row under cornice and no images are placed under kudus. Third storey is similar to the first storey having images under kudus.

Circular Shikhara

Above the third storey is mounted a circular griva (neck). There is a bhuta-gana row under the cornice of the griva. The griva is topped with a circular shikhara (cupola). There are four maha-nasikas (big kudu) on four sides of this shikara. An image of Shiva with Parvati on east, Shiva as Veenadhara on south are placed under these maha-nasikas. Four Nandi statues are placed at four corners facing either east or west. Most of South Indian agama texts puts circular shikhara under Vesara style of temple architecture, square shikhara under Nagara and Octagonal shikara under Dravida. Another interesting feature is its circular garbha-griha inside its square vimana. This circular shape leaves space around the garbha-griha to accommodate a circumambulatory path thus putting it under sandhara temple category. A sandhara temple is a temple which is equipped with circumambulatory around its sanctum. These all properties put Vijayala Choleesvaram into Vesara sandhara temple style.


Entrance to the temple

Right Dvarpala

Two life size dvarpalas greet you at the entrance. They are shown with two hands with one hand resting on a club and another one raised in air. Both are depicted with protruding tusks however their calmness on face cover up their ferocious nature. Dvarpala on proper right is much better preserved in comparison with the left one. It has protruding trisula (trident) from his head suggesting that it represents trisula of Shiva. There is an important inscription on its base which gives information about the construction of this temple by a Muttaraiya chief. Present dvarpala statues are well mortared in niches however I am not sure whether these are the original statues.

Main entrance is provided at west which takes a visitor into a pillared mandapa. Pillars are in characteristics Mahendra-order with cubical top and base and octagonal shaft in between. Taranga band is used for corbels. there is a Shiva linga inside circular sanctum. Traces of paintings can be seen on mandapa walls. Paintings of Vishnu and Bhairava are little clear however other paintings are not. It is suggested that these paintings were not put during the construction of the temple but of very late origin. Except for these paintings temple from inside is very simple.

Sapta-matrika shrine

There are eight subsidiary shrines around the central temple which confirms to astha-parivara pattern. Only six have survived at present. The arrangement of these eight sub shrines is as follows: Chandra in east, Surya in south-east, Sapta-matrika in south, Ganesha in south-west, Subramanya in west, Jyestha in north-west, Chandesha in north and Bhairava in north-east. Shrine for Sapta-matrika is usually constructed in oblong shape to accommodate seven or nine images of this group. The arrangement of the shrines is little peculiar as Sapta-matrika shrine is placed on south-east corner instead of south side. Hence while assigning the shrines to respective deities, we need to accommodate this diversion from regular arrangement. Other early Chola period parivara shrines can be seen at Thirukkattalai and Kodumbalur.

As per the foundation inscription this temple was constructed by a Muttaraiya chief named Ilangodi-araiyar. However there are two opinions on his period. One opinion points that he was contemporary of the Pallava king Nandivarman II (731-796 CE) however second opinion suggests his period to the time of the Chola king Vijayala Chola thus to second half of ninth century CE. The current name Vijayala-Choleesvaram was first referred in a Pandya inscription of the king Maravarman Sundara Pandya of thirteenth century CE. Why this mistake? First possibility is that the people of that time were not aware of the foundation inscription and as the Pandya-s wrestled this part of land from Chola-s so they referred it to Vijayala Chola, the founder of second Chola empire. However as the inscription is written on eastern wall of the mandapa as well so it is hard to believe that the people of that time were not aware of this. If they were aware of it then were they not able to interpret it? Again hard to believe as the script does not change so much in such a little time gap. Another possibility is that though they were aware of the inscription however as no name was given to the temple in that inscription so they assigned to the first king of the Chola empire from whom they won over this land.

Inscriptions –

1. No 11-A of the Inscriptions of the Pudukkottai State – On the base of the north dvarapala at the entrance – Written in Tamil in 4 lines – dated to ninth century CE – Records that the stone temple erected by Chembudi alias Ilangodi-araiyar was damaged by rain and that it was renovated by Mallan Viduman alias Tennavan Tamiladiaraiyan.

2. No 216 of the Annual Report on Epigraphy 1940-41 – On the east wall of the mandapa in front of the central shrine – Written in Tamil – dated to ninth century CE – Records that this temple which had been destroyed by heavy rains was renovated by Mallan Viduman alias Tennavan Tamiladiyaraiyan. It is said that the temple was originally built by Chattampudi alias Ilango-Adiyaraiyar.

Water Lilies in Pond

Small Pond – There is small pond near this temple on north side which is supposed to be a Jain cave probably.

Inscriptions –
1. No 366 of the Annual Report on Epigraphy 1914/No 11 of the Inscriptions of the Pudukkottai State/No 396 of the South Indian Inscriptions vol XVII – On the rock to the north of the pond called Arunmaikkulam – Written in Tamil in 10 lines – dated to ninth century CE – Records that Tamiladiyaraiyan alias Mallan Vidaman got a sluice made to the tank called Animadayeri. He also gave some land to the mason named Chonanaraiyan who made the sluice.

How to Reach – Narthamalai is situated on Trichy-Pudukkottai highway, about 2 km inside from highway. It is about 17 km from Pudukkottai. Narthamalai is well connected to Trichy and Pudukkottai through road and rail. There is a small railway station at Narthamalai. It is well connected by road also from these two major towns. Nearest airport is Trichy which is also a major rail-head.

References:
1. Dubreuil, G Jouveau (1917). Dravidian Architecture. Madras. Asian Education Services. ISBN 8120602560
2. Latha, V (2005). Cave Temples of Pandya Country: Art and Ritual. New Delhi. Sharada Publishing House. ISBN 8188934224
3. Mahalingam, T V (1991). A Topographical List of Inscriptions in the Tamilnadu and Kerala States Vol VI. New Delhi. S Chand & Company Ltd.
4. Srinivasan, K R (1996). Temples of South India. New Delhi. National Book Trust of India. ISBN 8123718675

Web References: (all references retrieved on 29/04/2011)
1. History of Muttaraiyars
2. Muttaraiya Architecture
3. Katherine's Guest Post on Narthamalai in Poetryinstone.in
4. Unspoiled Narthamalai by Katherine Brobeck
5. Narthamalai by V Ganapathy in The Hindu
6. Narthamalai by S Sumitha on Varalaaru.com
7. Raja Deekshithar on Spinx in Indian Art

Srinivasanallur - Koranganatha Temple

2011-04-16T23:44:00.002+05:30

Introduction – Srinivasanallur is a town located about 50 km from Trichy. The region is referred as Mahendra-mangalam in inscriptions. This Mahendra-mangalam could be the name given by some Pallava king as there were three Pallava kings with coronation name Mahendravarman. Mahendravarman I (580-630 CE) was known to be ruling over Trichy during his period however this region was not under the Pallava-s after Mahendravarman I. This suggests that if the region was named after a Pallava king then it could be only Mahendravarman I. However none of the inscription of this Pallava king refer this region.

Monuments – There are many temples of interest at Srinivasanallur. Koranganatha temple is the only temple which is under protection from Archaeological Survey of India.

Koranganatha Temple (image courtesy - Shriram Rajaram)

Koranganatha Temple (image courtesy - Avanibhajana from Flickr)

Koranganatha Temple - This east facing temple is an example of dvitala (double storeys) vimana structure as seen in Muvar Koil at Kodumbalur and Sundaresvara Temple at Thirukkattalai. There are many advanced architectural features seen in this temple in comparison of simpler shrines at Panangudi, Kaliyapatti and Visalur. First difference to notice is antarala (vestibule) inserted between the sanctum and ardha-mandapa. Total length from mandapa to vimana is about 50 feet where mandapa is a rectangle of 25 feet by 20 feet and the vimana is a square of 25 feet side. Sanctum inside vimana is a square chamber of 12 feet side.

Vyala row (image courtesy - Katherine Brobeck)

A very visible and striking difference which is observed from the Pallava temples is absence of sedent or rampant lion base pillars. However instead of using these animal motifs as base of pillar, the architects innovated a new scheme where these animals heads were put into a single-course of, a characteristic Chola feature which was continued throughout the subsequent periods. This is the second advanced feature noticed at Koranganatha Temple. This single-course row consisting of animal heads, vyala (yali) row, is placed above adhisthana (platform). There is a very low rising upapitam which is probably constructed to level the ground for construction of the temple. Above this upapitam rises upanam of quite significant height. Above this is kambudam which is rounded at its edges. Above this kambudam is kabodam which is surmounted with yalam (vyala row). The vyala row has magnificent and exquisite figures of vyala-s (mythological animals) with heads of lions or elephants. Makara figures are protruding out on the corners in level with vyala-s.

Vimana Details (image courtesy - Katherine Brobeck)

Third feature of interest is appearance of various pavilions in the attic of the first storey of the vimana. Karnakuta is placed at the angle of the edifice and have a square roof with a stupi on top. Salai is placed in middle and have an elongated oblong roof with three stupi-s on top. This arrangement is earlier seen on the Pallava monoliths, Arjuna Ratha and Dharmaraja Ratha, and their structural temple, Shore Temple, at Mahabalipuram. Muvar Koil at Kodumbalur also has karnakuta-s and salai on their vimana however instead of putting these on single storey, these are distributed among two storeys, karnakuta-s on first and salai on second. Kudu-s are provided above cornice. The vimana is about 50 feet high while the cornice of mandapa is about 16 feet high.

South side of vimana (image courtesy - Katherine Brobeck)

Shiva as Dakshinamurti (image courtesy - Katherine Brobeck)

There are niches, gosta-panjaram, carved between pilasters on the external walls of the sanctum. Niches are topped with a makara-torana on top. Two small niches are put on either side of the middle main niche. These side niches were provided for attendants or dvarapalas. The images placed inside the niches are carved very bold and carved so exquisitely these look to be carved in round and few seems to come out of the niche. Percy Brown talks about a niche sculpture of Kali in attendance of Saraswati on left and Lakshmi on right on southern wall of the temple, however I am not able to locate this. Instead of Kali, there is a marvelous image of Shiva as Dakshinamurti in southern niche. He is shown seated under a tree with his left leg placed above the demon of ignorance. On either side of him are shown his pupils, gana-s and animals. On right side small niche has Shiva as Bhikshatanamurti. He is shown wearing heavy sandals and is accompanied with a gana on his side. On side left niche is probably a dvarpala who is standing with both his hands folded on his chest. He is wearing a simha-makuta, lion face crown. There are two protruding teeth coming out of his mouth.

Brahma on north wall (image courtesy - Katherine Brobeck)

Middle niche of east wall is now empty. There are two female images on two side niches on west wall. It may be that some goddess was adorning the middle niche of this side. One of the female image is holding a chanvar (fly-whisk) suggesting that she could an attendant of the missing goddess. Usually an image of Vishnu is placed on west however in this case it may be that an image of Lakshmi was carved. Niche on north has an image of Brahma as usual. He is shown standing in sambhaga posture carrying an askamala and a kamandalu in his upper arms. One arms is resting on his waist. One attendant is standing in right side niche holding flowers in between his two palms which are joined in anjali mudra. There is another attendant on left side niche.

The name of temple as per inscription is Tirukkurakkutturai-Perumanadigal. Local name Koranganatha is based upon a local legend which states that the temple was defiled by a monkey (korangu) after its completion and hence was never consecrated. Percy Brown dated the temple to the period of the Chola king Parantaka I however presence of a donative record of an earlier Chola king Aditya I puts the temple to the latter half of the ninth century CE.

Inscriptions – There are many inscriptions on all the walls of this temple. Few of those are discussed in detail below: There are inscriptions found on other temples of this town also.

1. No 592 of the Annual Report on Epigraphy 1904/No 306 of the South Indian Inscriptions vol XIII – On the south wall of the temple – Written in Tamil in 4 lines – dated to twenty-fourth regnal year of the Chola king Rajakesarivarman (Aditya I), approximately to 895 CE – Records a gift of one and a half ma of land, freed from taxes for maintaining a perpetual lamp in the temple of Tirukkurakkutturai Perumanadigal at the brahmadeya village of Mayediramangalam, by one Kachchuvan (Kashyapa) Jatadeva-Nilan of Tottyam, a devedana. The gift was made in presence of the sabhai-varigar and arigaya-batarar.
2. No 587 of the Annual Report on Epigraphy 1904/No 636 of the South Indian Inscriptions vol XVII – On the south and east wall of the temple – Written in Tamil in 28 lines – dated to twenty-ninth regnal year of the Chola king Madiraikonda-Parakesarivarman (Parantaka I), approximately to 935 CE – Registers sale of land as devadana freed from irai and vetti and other village taxes to the Kurukkuttutai Perumanadigal temple by the Mulaparadai of the village for one hundred fifty six and a half kalanju of gold donated by Panchchan Narayanachokkan. The mediator who recorded the document was Indana Muvanan.
3. No 589A of the Annual Report on Epigraphy 1904/No 639 of the South Indian Inscriptions vol XVII – On the south wall of the temple – Written in Tamil in 19 lines – badly damaged - dated to thirtieth regnal year of the Chola king Parantaka I, approximately to 937 CE – Seems to record sale of land by the mulaparidai, who also freed it from all taxes, including irai, echchoru, vetti and vediani, for a perpetual lamp to the local temple, in return for gold donated by Kappiyan Eluvan Ganagadharan.
4. No 590 of the Annual Report on Epigraphy 1904/No 640 of the South Indian Inscriptions vol XVII – On the south wall of the temple – Written in Tamil in 6 lines – incomplete - dated to thirtieth regnal year of the Chola king Madiraikonda-Parakesarivarman (Parantaka I), approximately to 937 CE – Registers a land gift of the deity, Tirukkurakkutturai Perumanadigal of Mahendramangalam, a brahmadeya for burning a lamp, by a brahmana lady Kali-Nili, the wife of Panachchan Naraynan Krishnan. Her guardian was Panachchan Narayanan Chendan. The land granted is said to have acquired bt her from her husband for her maintenance.
5. No 589 of the Annual Report on Epigraphy 1904/No 638 of the South Indian Inscriptions vol XVII – On the south wall of the temple – Written in Tamil in 4 lines – dated to thirty-seventh regnal year of the Chola king Madiraikonda-Parakesarivarman (Parantaka I), approximately to 944 CE – Registers the gift of 12 kalanju of gold for a perpetual lamp, for the deity Paramesvara of the Tirukkurakkutturai temple at Mahendramangalam together with one nilaivilakku, a copper pot for use on the occasion of eclipses and a silver platter for placing areca-nuts, by one Charpadevan alias Chembiyankilar-nattukkon of Kilinallur in Kilaekurram.
6. No 591 of the Annual Report on Epigraphy 1904/No 641 of the South Indian Inscriptions vol XVII – On the south wall of the temple – Written in Tamil in 4 lines – damaged - dated to some regnal year of the Chola king Madiraikonda-Parakesarivarman (Parantaka I), approximately to 907 CE – Registers a sale of land as devadana to the temple of Tirukkurukkutturai Perumandigal for 2 kalanju of gold. Another gift of 5 kalanju of gold for a day lamp to the same deity is also mentioned.
7. No 592 of the Annual Report on Epigraphy 1904/No 643 of the South Indian Inscriptions vol XVII – On the south wall of the temple – Written in Tamil in 6 lines – dated to twentieth regnal year of the Chola king Madiraikonda-Parakesarivarman (Parantaka I), approximately to 927 CE – Registers sale to the temple of Tirukkarakkutturip-Perumanadigal, of land, freed from taxes such as irai, echchoru, vetti and vedanai, by the mulaparadai of Mahendramangalam, a brahmadeya, which received gold worth 233 kalanju and five and a half ma presumably dues on account of Panchavaranellu. The land was priced at 10 kalanju of gold per ma.
8. No 586 of the Annual Report on Epigraphy 1904/No 2 of the South Indian Inscriptions vol XIII – On the east wall of the temple – Written in Tamil in 14 lines – dated to the Chola king Rajakesarivarman (Gandharaditya), approximately to 952 CE – Records gift of 30 goats and 30 sheep, for a perpetual lamp to be burnt for the merit of Gangadharan-Arattan in the temple of Tirukkurakkutturai Perumanadigal at Mahendramangalam, a brahmadeya by Kappiyan Eluvan Gangadharan of the same village. The panmahesvaras of the 18 nadus were invoked to protect the charity.
9. No 596 of the Annual Report on Epigraphy 1904/No 3 of the South Indian Inscriptions vol XIII – On the north wall of the temple – Written in Tamil in 25 lines – incomplete - dated to some regnal year of the Chola king Rajakesarivarman (Rajaraja I), approximately to 987 CE – Records on the orders of the araiyar Acharakanta-Brahmadhiraja, the mulaparadai of Mahendramangalam, a brahmadeya, constituted a new variyam (committee) consisting of a kanakku and certain members to take stock of tax free devadana lands belonging to the temple of Tirukkutakkutturai-Perumanadigal in the village and to make provisions for the various services in the temple. The details of allocation of fields for each services are elaborately given. It is said that provisions was made for seven persons to play music during the sribali service three for mattali, one for Karadigai, one for talam, one for padagam and one for segandigi.
10. No 598 of the Annual Report on Epigraphy 1904/No 648 of the South Indian Inscriptions vol XVII – On the north wall of the temple – Written in Tamil in 2 lines – incomplete – probably in the reign of the Chola king Rajendra I, approximately to 1012 CE – Begins with meykkirtti portion of the king, Tirumannivalara, etc enumerating the conquests and victories of the king. The grant portion of the record is lost.
11. No 595 of the Annual Report on Epigraphy 1904/No 645 of the South Indian Inscriptions vol XVII – On the west wall of the temple – Written in Tamil in 3 lines – incomplete - dated to twenty-first regnal year of the Chola king Rajakesarivarman alias Kullotunga I, approximately to 1091 CE – The record commences with the meykkirtti portion of the kings, Pugalmaduvilanga etc. Mentions Jayangondachola-chaturvedimangalam of Mimalai.
12. No 586B of the Annual Report on Epigraphy 1904/No 634 of the South Indian Inscriptions vol XVII – On the east wall of the temple – Written in Tamil – incomplete – assigned to eleventh century on paleographic grounds – Appears to refer to a grant of land, purchased for 55 kalanju of gold situated in Mahendramangalam, Brahmadeya. The record mentions a brahmana lady Nakkanarayani Tiruvi and the mediator of the deal, Tiyambakam Manan, who wrote the document.
13. No 597 of the Annual Report on Epigraphy 1904/No 26 of the South Indian Inscriptions vol XVII – On the north wall of the temple – Written in Tamil in 6 lines – damaged - dated to third regnal year of the Chola king Rajakesarivarman – Registers a sale of land called Alichchey as iraiyili-devadana by the mulaparudai of the brahmadeya Mahendramangalam, to the temple of Tirukkurakkutturai-Perumanadigal. Among the signatories are mentioned Valakurudaiyan Kaliyan Tunaiyan, a servant of Muttamil-Acharyar who was perhaps the ruler of the village, Naranan Kakuttan, the karmakkaranan of Tottiyam, Korramangalam-udaiyan Sekharan Chettan who belonged to the Manigramam of Rajakesaripuram in Malanadu and Nerkuppai-udaiyan Chendan Madevan, the karanam of Malanadu.
14. No 588 of the Annual Report on Epigraphy 1904/No 158 of the South Indian Inscriptions vol XIII – On the south wall of the temple – Written in Tamil in 5 lines – dated to seventh regnal year of the Chola king Rajakesarivarman – Records the same of a garden land at Ichanaikkudi to the temple of Tirukkurakkutturai-Perumanadigal at Mayendiramangalam by Panachchan Duvedi Narayanan Kali of the village. The record refers to a field belonging to Chaturvedi-bhatta-ttana-perumakkal as one of the boundaries of the land sold.
15. No 586C of the Annual Report on Epigraphy 1904/No 635 of the South Indian Inscriptions vol XIII – On the east wall of the temple – Written in Tamil in 8 lines – damaged and fragmentary – assigned to the end of thirteenth century CE - contains a portion of the meykkirti, tirumagal, jayamagal etc of Maravarman Vikramapandya

How to Reach – Srinivasanallur is located about 50 km from Trichy on Trichy-Namakkal road which is a State Highway. Regular bus service from Trichy is available however road is not very nice so so not keep your time schedule tight. Trichy is the nearest rail-head and airport.

References:
1. Brown, Percy (1959). Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindu Periods). Mumbai.
2. Dubreuil, G Jouveau (1917). Dravidian Architecture. Madras. Asian Education Services. ISBN 8120602560
3. Mahalingam, T V (1991). A Topographical List of Inscriptions in the Tamilnadu and Kerala States Vol VI. New Delhi. S Chand & Company Ltd.
4. Srinivasan, K R (1996). Temples of South India. New Delhi. National Book Trust of India. ISBN 8123718675

Web References:
1. Benoy K Behl - Artcile on Chola Temples in The Hindu, retrieved on 16/04/2011
2. Poetryinstone.in on tiger-belly gana, retrieved on 16/04/2011
3. Kathie's Picasa Album on Srinivasanallur, retrieved on 16/04/2011
4. Shriram's Picasa Album on Srinivasanallur, retrieved on 16/04/2011
5. South Indian Inscriptions Vol XIII - inscription no 1-25, retrieved on 16/04/2011
6. South Indian Inscriptions Vol XIII - inscription no 301-325, retrieved on 16/04/2011
7. South Indian Inscriptions Vol XIII - inscription no 151-175, retrieved on 16/04/2011
8. South Indian Inscriptions Vol XVII - Chola Inscriptions, retrieved on 16/04/2011

Panangudi - Agastyesvara Temple

2011-04-15T17:26:00.002+05:30

Introduction – Panangudi is a small village in Pudukkottai district. The village boasts of two fine temples and a continuous center of interest since the Chola-s.

Monuments – There are two temples of interest, one is Shiva temple known as Agastyesvara Temple and another a Vishnu temple. Both the temples are under protection from Archaeological Survey of India.

Agastyesvara Temple

Full view of the temple

Agastyesvara Temple - This temple is a fine example of the early Chola architecture which resembles to other early temples at Kaliyapatti, Visalur and Tiruppur. All of these early shrines were built with ektala (single storey) vimana. A late Pallava temple at Tiruttani, Virattanesvara Temple, was also built with ektala vimana however to suggest that this was a predecessor of the early Chola temples would be a mistake as early Pallava temples at Mahabalipuram, Shore Temple, and at Kanchipuram, Kailasanatha Temple, are colossus structures. Sometimes I feel that many circumstances and other constraints impact upon the structure of a temple. Above said early Pallava temples were constructed under a royal order hence these are colossus in nature. However if a temple is constructed without royal patronage, may be the case when a community or a chief of some village construct a temple, then the structure is kept within constraints of available funds. None of the early Chola temples have foundation inscription which suggests that perhaps these were not constructed under a royal order but out of necessity of the local community hence these are small in nature.

View from SW

This east facing temple has a sanctum and a small mandapa in front. The sanctum is constructed with a square base of nine feet side on exterior and five feet in interior. On this sanctum a square vimana rises above. Vimana has a single story with bhutagana frieze below cornice with yali-row on corners. Above this storey rests a square griva (neck). On top of this griva is a square shikhara (cupola). The shikhara has maha-nasika (big arches) in middle on all four sides. Below these maha-nasika-s, on first and only storey of vimana, are niches carved in. These niches have Shiva as Dakshinamurti on south, Vishnu on west and Brahma on north and Indra (Subramanya?) on east, confirming to the regular arrangement of their placement. An image of Nandi is placed on all the four corners on this vimana story. These Nandi-s either face east or west but no north and south.

Jyestha

In contrast with the temple at Visalur, there are niches on the sanctum external walls, one on each side except on east. All the niches are empty now. The mandapa is devoid of any niche or other ornamentation. There is a Ganesha and Jyestha image inside the mandapa. The image of Jyestha would be of a sub-shrine of this temple as bases of few sub-shrines are notices around this temple. The sanctum has a Shiva lingam however it seems a later addition probably.

Inscription on South Wall

Inscriptions – There are few inscriptions discussed in detail below:

1. No 180 of the Inscriptions of the Pudukkottai State – On the west wall of the temple – Written in Tamil in 10 lines – incomplete – dated to unmentioned regnal year of the Chola king Kulottunga III – Only ten lines of the historical introduction beginning with puyal varappivalamperuga, etc, of the inscription of the king are available. The remaining portion is much damaged.
2. No 533 of the Inscriptions of the Pudukkottai State – On the north wall of the temple - Written in Tamil in 28 lines but incomplete – dated in the fourth regnal year of the Pandya king Maravarman alias Sri Kulasekharadeva – Records the fixing of the assessment on a devadana land by the temple trustees and the residents of Panangudi in Konadu.

S R Subramanayam reports an unpublished inscription which is found on the north wall of this temple. This inscription is of the Chola king Ko-Parakesarivarman. In this inscription, the deity is referred as 'Panangudi Paramesvaran'. He assigns this inscription to the Chola king Vijayalachola.

How to Reach – Panangudi is in Pudukkottai district however I am not very sure about its location. I visited this while returning from Sittanavasal towards Trichy. It was not very far from Sittananvasal, within 5 km range. It is about 3 km south east of Annavasal and 15 km from Pudukkottai.

References:
1. Balasubramanayam, S R (1965). Early Chola Art Part 1. Asia Publishing House. Mumbai.
2. Mahalingam, T V (1991). A Topographical List of Inscriptions in the Tamilnadu and Kerala States Vol VI. New Delhi. S Chand & Company Ltd.
3. Srinivasan, K R (1996). Temples of South India. New Delhi. National Book Trust of India. ISBN 8123718675

Visalur - Vasukisvaramudaiya Mahadeva Temple

2011-04-13T20:48:00.002+05:30

Introduction – Visalur is a small town in Pudukkottai district which is famous for an early Chola temple dedicated to Shiva. The place was known with its present name, Vislaur, in earlier times as depicted from inscriptions of the Chola-s and Pandya-s found in the temple. The town would have held a commendable position in the olden days as it got the attention of the Chola rulers and their successors, the Pandya-s, as well. A connection is found between Kudumiyanmalai and Visalur in a Pandya inscription. The inscriptions of king Jatavarman Vira-Pandya (no 360 & 361 of ARE 1906) at Kudumiyanmalai talks about transfer of a land at Visalur, by the assembly of Visalur, to the temple of Kudumiyanmalai to accommodate their unpaid dues.

Monuments – The only monument of interest is the Shiva temple which is a protected monument under Archaeological Survey of India.

Vimana view from north-west

Shiva Temple - The Lord of the temple is referred as Vasukisvaramudaiya-Mahadeva in the Chola inscriptions and Varadukasuramudaiya-Nayanar in the Pandya inscriptions. This temple is a nice example of the early Chola architecture. Other similar architectural style is seen in the temples of Kaliyapatti, Panangudi and Tiruppur. All of these early shrines were built with ektala (single storey) vimana. Virattanesvara Temple at Tiruttani, a late Pallava creation, may be considered as a precursor of these Chola temples. Though temple at Tiruttani has ektala vimana however its gajaprishta (elephant back) architecture puts it in a different league from other temples. As there is similarity between the vimana style of late Pallava and early Chola monuments, it may be said that the Chola-s got inspiration from their predecessors however it is just a theory.

Details of vimana

The temple is constructed with a square base on which a square vimana rises above. Vimana has a single story above which square griva (neck) rises. On top of this griva is a square shikhara (cupola). The shikhara has maha-nasika (big arches) in middle on all four sides. Below these maha-nasika-s, on first and only storey of vimana, are niches carved in. These niches have Shiva as Dakshinamurti on south, Vishnu on west and Brahma on north, confirming to the regular arrangement of their placement. An image of Nandi is placed on all the four corners on this vimana story. These Nandi-s either face east or west but no north and south. There are no niches on the sanctum external walls. Each side is composed of four pilasters without any niche.

Dakshinamurti on south

Vishnu on north

Brahma on north

There is a probability that the temple got extended later on with a mandapa however there is no inscription of this nature to support this. Gopuram and the compound wall would have been an extension from the Pandya-s supported on a fact that their inscriptions are found on gopuram walls only. Compound wall is extended with pillared verandah all around from inside. A mandapa for Dakshinamurti was constructed adjoining with the south wall of the sanctum. An image of Dakshinamurti is now placed inside this mandapa. There are few other small mandapa-s constructed for various other deities. Few loose sculptures are placed in the compound wall verandah also. These include Jyeshta, Lakshmi and Vishnu.

Inscriptions – There are few inscriptions in and around this temple complex. These are discussed in detail below:

1. No 217 of the Annual Report on Epigraphy 1940-41 – On the north wall of the temple – Written in Tamil – dated to the twelfth regnal year of the Chola king Rajarajakesarivarman (Rajaraja I), who destroyed Kandalursalai, approximately in 997 CE – Records grant of lands, made tax-free, to the temple of Vasukisvaramudaiya-Mahadeva, by the assembly of Visalur in Misen-gili-nadu for providing worship and offerings to the deity.
2. No 231 of the Inscriptions of the Pudukkottai State – On the south wall of the temple – Written in Tamil in 11 lines – damaged and incomplete – dated to forty-seventh regnal year of the Chola king Kulottunga-Choladeva (Kulottunga I), approximately in 1117 CE – Records provision made for burning sandi lamp in the temple of Va…..suisvaramudaiya-Nayanar in Visalur in Misengili-nadu, a sub divison of Jayasingakulakala-valanadu by Andan Aliyadan of the village.
3. No 598 of the Inscriptions of the Pudukkottai State – On the south wall of the gopura entrance to the temple - Written in Tamil in 14 lines but incomplete – dated in the fourteenth regnal year of the Pandya king Jatavarman alias Sri Vira-Pandyadeva – Records a gift of land by the residents of Puliyur in Misengili-nadu, a sub division of Jayasingakulakala-valandu, for offerings to Varadukasuramudaiya-Nayanar of Visalur in the same nadu.
4. No 609 of the Inscriptions of the Pudukkottai State – On the wall to the left of the gopura entrance to the temple - Written in Tamil but incomplete – dated in the fourteenth regnal year of the Pandya king Vira-Pandyadeva – mentions Misengiliyur-nadu

How to Reach – Visalur is in Pudukkottai district however I am not very sure about its location. My trip route was Kunnandarkoil-Kaliyapatti-Visalur-Narthamalai, if it gives some clue to reach your destination.

References:
1. Balasubramanayam, S R (1965). Early Chola Art Part 1. Asia Publishing House. Mumbai.
2. Mahalingam, T V (1991). A Topographical List of Inscriptions in the Tamilnadu and Kerala States Vol VI. New Delhi. S Chand & Company Ltd.
3. Srinivasan, K R (1996). Temples of South India. New Delhi. National Book Trust of India. ISBN 8123718675

Web References:
1. Arvind's Picasa Album on Visalur, retrieved on 13/04/2011
2. South Indian Inscriptions Vol 22, retrieved on 13/04/2011

Thirumayam - The Land of Truth

2011-04-11T22:24:00.004+05:30

Introduction – History of Thirumayam is probably traceable from early seventh century when the town was immortalized with the construction of a Vishnu cave temple. After a short period, a cave temple for Shiva was also constructed hence making this town to be revered by Vaishnavas and Shaivas equally. There is no consensus among the scholars about which one of the cave temples was constructed first. I have taken the view supporting the Vishnu temple however this will be dealt in detail later in the article. Existence of the Pallava Grantha inscriptions in the Shiva cave temple suggests that the town was under Pallavas through their vassals, Muttaraiyar, perhaps. Though the Pallava territory was restricted to Trichy during the reign of Mahendravarman I (580-629 CE) but the Pallava-s gained northern part of the Pandya land during the reign of Nandivarman II Pallavamalla (731-796 CE). An inscription of the mother of a Muttaraiya chief in the Vishnu cave temple supports this view. Thirumangai Alvar, and eighth century Vaishnava saint, praised the Lord of Thirumayam in his hymns and included it under the hundred and eight divya-sthalas for the Vaishnavas. This started the foundation of Vaishnava tradition in Thirumayam.

Pandya-s gained their land back from the Pallava-s soon. Thirumayam came under the the Chola-s when the wiped off the Pandya-s from Tamil landscape. Many inscriptions of the Chola-s in Thirumayam suggest that the town got its due attention from the Chola rulers as well. With the Pandya resurgence, Chola rule was ended and Thirumayam again came back to its original occupants. Inscriptions of Maravarman Sundara Pandya II reflects the attention given to this town just after he finished with the Chola problem. Pandya inscriptions of Sundara Pandya, Vira Pandya and Parakrama Pandya suggests that this town was under them for quite some time.

Having a Shiva and a Vishnu temple at the same site put Thirumayam under religious conflicts. A long inscription is found which details about the settlement reached to avoid further conflict in between these two sects. This meeting was presided by a Hoysala army chief and the inscription is dated under seventh regnal year of Sundara Pandya II. This suggests that either the town was under influence of the Hoysala-s or they helped Sundara Pandya in his wars against the Cholas achieving a commendable position under the Pandya-s. The inscription suggests that there were earlier incidents of clashes between these two sects at the site which resulted in some demolition of temple properties. However after the settlement was reached all conflicts were resolved without further clashes.

After the Pandya-s, Vijayanagara rulers enjoyed command over this town. The Vijayanagara inscriptions are dated in the reigns of Virupaksha I and Krishnadeva-raya (15th-16th century CE). Where the Pandya records are only found in Shiva temple, they seemed to have neglected the Vishnu temple, Vijayanagara rulers supported both the temples in ratio of 3:2 for the Vishnu and Shiva temple. Though they favored the Vishnu temple but they did not neglected the Shiva temple. After the Vijayanagara rulers, Pudukkottai Nayaka-s were in possession of the town. Setupathi Vijaya Raghunatha Tevan of Ramanathapuram was ruling over Thirumayam during later seventeenth century and he constructed a fort here. He gifted this fort to Tondaiman rulers of Pudukkottai for helping him winning Ramanathapuram from his rivals. Tondaiman king submitted to East India Company’s claim for the fort and Thirumayam went to the British under the Princely State of Pudukkottai. At present Thirumayam is a taluk under Pudukkottai district and a revered place for the Vaishnavas.

Monuments – There are three monuments of interest in Thirumayam, Thirumayam Fort, Shiva cave temple locally known as Satyagirisvara Temple and Vishnu cave temple known as Satyamurti Perumal Temple.

Satyamurti Perumal temple entrance

Sesasayi Image of Vishnu Cave Temple (image courtesy - http://senkottaisriram.blogspot.com)

Satyamurti Perumal Temple – Satyamurti Perumal Temple is a cave temple dedicated to Vishnu who is present in his Anantasayana (reclining) form. I feel that this Anantasayana image is perhaps the best representation of this icon among all others. This colossus image is about 9 meters long covering the whole area of the cave. Vishnu is shown recumbent of Adi-Sesa (mythological serpent) coil facing south with his head in west and legs stretched out to east. He is surrounded by many deities. Brahma, seated on a lotus, emerges out of his naval. Lakshmi is shown seated near his chest while Bhu-devi is near his feat. Near Brahma are shown Sapta-rishis (seven saints). Garuda is shown standing behind Sesa. Two demons, Madhu and Kaitabha, are standing near his feet ready to attack him. Vishnu’s weapons Sudarshan Chakra (discus), Panchjanya Shankha (conch), Nandaka (sword) and Kaumaudiki (club) are shown flying towards Madhu and Kaitabha to defend the attack. Adi-Sesa spits fire from his hoods to scare the demons. The fire blocks moving towards the demons are very nicely carved on the back wall.

K R Srinivasan suggests that this image of reclining Vishnu was hypaethral (open cave) which was later converted into a cave temple by addition of façade pillars and other features by a queen of Muttaraiyar origin. V Latha infers a similarity of this cave with open grotto image of Vishnu at Udaigiri Caves of the Gupta origin. As the inscription of Muttaraiya lady talks about renovation which suggests that the cave was already in existence. This inscription is dated to second half of eight century by T V Mahalingam however V Latha writes that it is dated to later half of seventh century. She further states that if a temple needs a renovation then it could be estimated that the temple is at least 100 years old. Hence this cave would have been excavated in middle of sixth century. This is well before the time when the Pallava king Mahendravarman I (580-629 CE) started with his cave excavations at Mandagapattu which as per K R Srinivasan is the first such specimen ever tried in Tamilnadu. There is an old debate among the scholars whether Mandagapattu was the first cave of Tamilnadu or not. Raju Kalidos, V Latha, R K K Rajarajan and S Gopalakrishnan are of the opinion that cave temple as an art was in existence well before the Pallava-s in Pandya region. Raju Kalidos has shown similarities between the Gupta caves of Udaigiri and caves of Pandya region. These similarities are seen in the iconography icons and cave excavation styles. G-Jouveau Dubreuil while describing Adi-Varaha Perumal Cave Temple at Mahabalipuram suggested that this temple may have been started during the time of the Pallava king Simhavishnu (550-580 CE), father of Mahendravarman I. Still there is no consensus on the Mandagapattu riddle among the scholars. In the case of Vishnu temple at Thirumayam, there are two opinions on dating of the Muttaraiya inscription as seen above. ASI (Archaeological Survey of India) on this cave temple states that Sattan Maran (Videlvidugu Viluperadiaraiyan), the Muttaraiya chief whose mother carried out renovations, was a contemporary and vassal of Pallava king Nandivarman II Pallavamalla (731-796 CE) thus supports dating of T V Mahalingam. I am not in capacity to clarify any further on this till there is a clarity from where V Latha got the dating of this inscription to later seventh century. If someone can lay hands on ‘Inscriptions of Pudukkottai State’ journals then original dating of this inscription can be verified.

Originally excavated as an open cave, it was fitted with a mandapa in a span of 100-120 years and thus started the journey of an amazing temple. Thirumangai Alvar referred it as Meyyamalaiyan in his hymns. After the donative records of eight century, the next available inscription is of 12th century CE hence history of about 400 years is missing. Later inscriptions talk about few edifices like temple tank etc which were not talked in the earlier inscriptions. Hence these could be the constructions done during those 400 years. The present form of the temple was taken during Vijayanagara rule when they constructed various separate shrines and gopurams. There is a mandapa constructed in front of the original cave with its extended small mandapa. On left of this large mandapa is a separate shrine for Vishnu as Satyamurti. Near this shrine are shrines for Visvaksena and Rama. There are many other small shrines all around the compound.

The current name of the temple, Satyamurti Perumal Temple, is not how it was called in earlier days. The lord is referred as Pallikontarulina Alvar and Alakiyameyyar in earlier inscriptions. The name Satyamurti might have been popular after it was referred by Thirumangai Alvar as Thiru-meyyamalaiyalan which translates to ‘The Lord of Truth’ which is same as the translation of Sanskrit word Satyamurti. It is very probable that this name, Satyamurti, came into existence during the Vijayanagara rule.

Inscriptions – There are many inscriptions in and around this temple complex. Few of these are detailed below:

1. No 402 of the Annual Report on Epigraphy/No 13 of the Inscriptions of the Pudukkottai State – Found on a parapet slab in the west parakara (complex boundary) of the central shrine of Satyamurti – Written in 11 lines in Tamil – dated about second half of the eighth century CE – Records a renovation, probably of the temple, by a lady named Perubidugu Perundevi who was the mother of Videlvidugu Vilupperadiaraisan alias Sattan Maran and the gift of lands in Andakuddi, including the cultivation and proprietorship rights to the central shrine (unnaligaippuram) of the temple.
2. No 406 of the Annual Report on Epigraphy 1906 – Found on the west wall of the Satyanarayana-Perumal temple – Written in Tamil but stones are not in original order of the inscription – dated to 22nd regnal year of Kulasekharadeva Pandya – Records a gift of land
3. No 405 of the Annual Report on Epigraphy, 1906 – Found on west wall of the Satyanarayana-Perumal temple - Written in Tamil but stones are not in original order of the inscription – dated in 26th regnal year of Kulasekharadeva Pandya – Registers gift of land mentioning the name of the temple as Kandideva Vinnagar Emberuman.

Satyagirisvara Temple entrance

Satyagirisvara Temple – K R Srinivasan suggests that the Shiva cave was earlier than the Vishnu cave however V Latha states otherwise. K R Srinivasan’s claim might be due to the presence of musical inscription, now mostly obliterated, written in the Pallava Grantha script similar to the celebrated musical inscription of Kudumiyanmalai. The inscription of Kudumiyanmalai has been associated to the Pallava king Mahendravarman I by many scholars including C Minakshi however there is no consensus over this among the community. However K R Srinivasan did not associate this cave with the Pallava-s but states that this is an excavation of Muttaraiya-s/Pandya-s. Fortunately here we did not see any clash and the cave is associated with the Pandya-s by most scholars.

The current name of the temple, Satyagirisvara, seems to be influenced from the Vishnu cave temple at the same site. The lord is referred as Nayanar Thirumeyyamalaiyalan and Thirumeyyattu-mahadevar in its inscriptions and no where we find reference as Satyagirisvara. As we will see later, that the Vaishnavas got preference over the Shaivas, so it is more likely that the name of the lord of this cave temple got influenced from the prominent sect’s god, Satyamurti.

This rectangular cave faces south with a cell carved in its west lateral side. With this cell in west the sanctum faces east. It is generally assumed that cells in lateral walls were in fashion among the Pandya-s and Muttaraiya-s but not with the Pallava-s. However we have few Pallava cave temples where the main cell is carved in a lateral wall for example the Upper Cave Temple at Trichy. V Latha suggests that it is very possible that the Pallava architects followed this lateral wall cell style of the Pandya-s as Lower Cave Temple at Trichy is supposedly of the Pandya origin and has two cells in its each lateral walls. However it is very hard to substantiate this claim as no inscription is found at the Lower Cave Temple and it is assumed as a later excavation in comparison to the Upper Cave Temple by many scholars.

The mandapa has two pillars of characteristics Mahendra-order, with cubical base and top and octagonal shaft in middle. The cell is excavated little higher than the ground floor so that to rise the sanctum sanctorum. Inside the cell is a Shiva lingam carved out of mother rock, a characteristic feature of the Muttaraiya and Pandya style. V Latha draws a connection here between the Gupta style and the Pandya style. Monolithic lingas are absent in the Pallava cave temples however these are very much present in the Gupta and the Pandya caves. She further suggests that probably the Pandya-s got the inspiration from the Gupta-s hence they were the first to cut cave shrines in Tamilnadu, even before the Pallava-s.

Right side dvarapala representing trisula

Left side dvarpala representing parasu (?)

On either side of the cell are dvarpala-s. K R Srinivasan suggests that one of the dvarapala is a portrait sculpture of a chief or king, however it seems that he is probably not very correct in his statement. Both the dvarapala-s are representation of the ayudha-purusha of Shiva’s weapons. Dr Gift Siromoney has provided details about such representations of dvarpala-s in the times of the Pallava-s. This style is followed by their vassals, the Muttaraiya-s, as well as we have seen similar dvarapala representation in Kunnandarkoil Cave Temple. Right side dvarpala represents Trisula (trident) as evident by two protruding prongs out of his head on either side and one protruding prong from above his head. This representation was wrongly taken as the representation of Nandi by earlier scholars till Dr Gift Siromoney came up with his theory of ayudha-purusha-s as dvarapala-s. The dvarapala on left, which was misinterpreted as a chief or king by K R Srinivasan, is a representation of parasu (axe). There is a protruding axe blade from above his head. Though this dvarapala is not a very good example of axe blade representation however there are other better examples seen elsewhere. Refer PoetryInStone.in for complete understanding about ayudha-purusha-s as dvarapala-s.

Lingodbhava on eastern lateral wall

On the eastern lateral wall, a colossus Lingodbhavamurti is carved. The lingam is well rooted with the base and also with the roof of the mandapa. In between is an image of Shiva as Chandrasekhara. However there is no Brahma and Vishnu seen on this image. The story behind Lingodbhava in nutshell glorifies the superiority of Shiva among the Hindu Trinity, above Brahma and Vishnu. Once upon a time, Brahma and Vishnu sees an endless fire and they decided amongst themselves that whoever will find the end of this fire will be superior. Brahma took form of a swan and started flying upwards while Vishnu took form of a boar and started digging earth to move downwards. But both failed to reach the end of that great fire. At last Shiva appeared out of that fire and proved that he is superiors above the other two. One question always confuses me that why we worship linga or symbol of phallus. Sometimes I think that we do not worship a symbol of phallus but the endless fire which is depicted in form of a linga. Probably the symbol of worship was never in the form of a linga in the earlier times and the linga we see now is a corruption of that earlier symbol. But this can just be a thinking of my Hindu mind as I feel to get disassociate from phallus worshiping sect. May be more study is needed to understand linga worship and probably my mind is not adequate enough to understand the spiritual and mental philosophy behind this symbol.

Beyond the cave temple, its pillared mandapa, various extensions were made in later years. All the extensions were made in South leading to a gopuram which marks the current boundary of the temple and serves as the main entrance into the temple. There is a big mandapa constructed in front of original cave mandapa. A separate shrine for goddess Venu-vanesvari is constructed just opposite to the cave temple. This shrine has a cell and a mandapa in front. On the eastern side of the big mandapa are two separate shrine, one for Rajarajesvari and another for Bhairava. There are many other small shrines in the complex.

On the east end of the temple complex, a wall has been raised which demarks the Shiva temple and the Vishnu temple. It seems that Thirumayam went under a long feud between the two rival sects, the Vaishnavas and the Shaivas. As temples of both the sects were constructed side by side so there was always fight about the boundaries. A long inscription, found in Satyagirisvara Temple, provides details about a settlement which was reached between these two sects in the reign of the Pandya king Maravarman Sundara Pandya II. The agreement was presided by a Hoysala chief, Appanna Dandanayaka. In this settlement three-fifth of the land was given to the Vaishnavas and two-fifth to the Shaivas. They were asked to mark their boundary with stones, tirisulakkal (stone of trisula) and tiruvalikkal (stone of chakra). Instead of these stones there is a permanent boundary now.

Inscriptions – In comparison to its sibling, the Vishnu temple, this temple is rich in inscriptions. Few important inscriptions are detailed below:

1. No 5 of the Inscriptions of the Pudukkottai State – Found on north wall of the cave – Written in Sanskrit and Tamil using Pallava Granta and Tamil script – dated to seventh century CE - This record is a duplicate of one at Malaykoyil. This gives directions for learning to play the musical instrument parivadini (a seven stringed lute) and praises the divine qualities of the instrument.
2. No 386 of the Annual Report on Epigraphy 1906 and No 7-A South Indian Inscriptions Vol XII – On north and south wall of the cave – Written in Sanskrit using Pallava Grantha script – dated to seventh century CE – From the preserved portion, the names of musical notes such as gandharam, panchmam, dhaivatam, nishadam etc can be read. A certain order is noticeable in the arrangement of the notes in seven sections with sub-sections. Unfortunately the sub-sections have been erased as to make it impossible to follow the method adopted here. This record could be the exact copy of the celebrated musical inscription found at Kudumiyanmalai. As the paleography of the inscription resembles to that of Kudumiyanmalai so this inscription can be attributed to the Pallava king Mahendravarman I.

3. No 391 of the Annual Report on Epigraphy 1906 – At the entrance, left side, into the cave – Written in Tamil – dated 1004 CE - This incomplete inscription is dated in nineteenth regnal year of the Chola king Rajarajakesarivarman alias Rajarajadeva (Rajaraja I)

4. No 390 of the Annual Report on Epigraphy 1906 - At the entrance, left side, into the cave – Written in Tamil – dated 1033 CE – This much damaged inscription is dated in the twenty-first regnal year of the Chola king Rajendra I

5. No 387 of the Annual Report on Epigraphy and No 340 of the Inscriptions of the Pudukkottai State – South side of the cave mandapa – Written in Tamil in 47 lines – dated to 7th May, 1245 in the seventh regnal year of the Pandya king Maravarman Sundara Pandya II – This long record enumerates the various points of settlement arrived at, by a grand assembly comprising of the nadus, the nagarams, the villages and the samaya-mantris of Kana-nadu alias Virudaraja-bhayankara-valanadu, the Araiyakal who policed the nadu and the sri-rudramahesvara of the same nadu, Nalladariyum-perumal Iravanamudaliyar, Tavalaikoyil-vasar-picchamudaliyar, and the sri-vaishnavas of the Pandi-nadu, srivaishnavas and srimahesvaras of Thirumeyyam, srirudra srimahesvara of the temple of Thirukkodungunram in Thirumalai-nadu and the vaishnavas Anusantanam of the same nadu in the presence of Appanna Dandanayakkar, the brother-in-law of Ravidevar Dandanayakkar who was one of the Dandanayakkar of Hoysala Vera Somesvara. The first item of the settlement was about the long standing quarrel concerned with the sharing of the kadamai due from the village, between the Shiva and Vaishnava temples of the village. It was resolved that two-fifths of the kadamai should go to the Shiva temple and the remaining to the Vaishnava temples. The other items: a mutual exchange of devadana lands of the two temples, the compound wall common to the both temples, the fixation of the boundaries by tiruchchulakkal and tiruvalikkal, the sharing of tank and a well, the lands belonging to each temple, the habitation sites belonging to the two temples, the proprietary rights of the individuals and the erasure and re-engraving of old inscription of both the temples. Many officials attest the record. The record erased to engrave this settlement was the old Pallava Grantha musical inscription.

6. No 341 of the Inscriptions of the Pudukkottai State – On the rock to the north of the tank – Written in Tamil, 52 lines – dated to 7th May, 1245 - Duplicate of above inscription

7. No 392 of the Annual Report on Epigraphy 1906 – On the rock to the west of cave temple – Written in Tamil – this seems to the connecting record with No 387 of ARE, settlement inscription of Sundara Pandya II

8. No 389 of the Annual Report on Epigraphy and No 467 of the Inscriptions of the Pudukkottai State – At right side entrance to the cave temple – Written in Tamil – dates to eighth regnal year of the Pandya king Maravarman Sundara Pandya II – Seems to record a grant of land by the assembly at Thirumeyyam, a devadana and brahmadeya of Kana-nadu, instead of the paddy, due from then to the temple, on account of their having received 10 palankasu given to the temple by Imjiratuvdaiyan, one of the samantars of Rajarajadeva.

9. No 388 of the Annual Report on Epigraphy and No 472 of the Inscriptions of the Pudukkottai State – South wall of the cave temple – Written in Tamil in 44 lines – dated to eleventh regnal year of the Pandya king Maravarman Sundara Pandya II – Records a gift of land for uvachchu (drummer) service in the temple by the assembly of Thirumeyyam a devadana and brahmadeya of Kana-nadu aloas Virudarajabhayankara-valanadu. Mentions that the above land was set apart for the same service by Thiruvengadattu Nambi when he was chosen as referee immediately after the settlement of the dispute between the Vaishnavas and the Shaivas.

Thirumayam Fort

Thirumayam Fort – This fort was built by Sethupati Vijaya Raghunatha Tevan (1663-1708) of Ramanathapuram. He is popularly known as Kilavan Sethupati also. This fortification of the town was probably done after the fall of Vijayanagara rule from Thirumayam. Originally constructed with seven concentric walls, only three enclosures remain now. After Ragunatha Tevan, the fort went into the control of the Tondaiman rulers of Pudukkottai when Raghunatha Tevan gifted this fort and Thirumayam to his brother-in-law, Raghunatha Raya Tondaiman, the first king of Tonadaiman clan. The fort is very small and not many bastions are seen. There is one bastion on top of the hill where as canon of British origin is placed now. It is believed that Thirumayam fort was one of the recluse for the Tondaiman rulers during their bad times when Thanjavur general, Ananda Rao, ran over most of their territory leaving only small area in and around Thirumayam. Local guide will tell you an unconfirmed story of Katta-bomman and his brother Oomayam who held this fort against the British. This fort is locally known as Oomayam Kottai, the fort of the dumb, dumb refers here to Oomayam who fought against the British and was executed later on.

Small cave temple inside fort

There is a small cave temple of grotto style inside the fort. The cave is composed of a single cell excavated into a rock and dedicated to Shiva. A Shiva linga is carved inside out of the parent rock inside the cell. The base of this linga is square instead of regular circular base. Entrance of the cell has been carved like door with pilasters and lintel.

How to Reach – Thirumayam is about 20 km from Pudukkottai town lying on Trichy-Rameshvaram national highway no 210. It is well connected to Pudukkottai and Trichy via rail and road. The nearest airport is at Trichy.

References:
1. Ayyar, V Venkatasubba (1943). South Indian Inscriptions Vol XII. Madras. Archaeological Survey of India.
2. Latha, V (2005). Cave Temples of Pandya Country: Art and Ritual. New Delhi. Sharada Publishing House. ISBN 8188934224
3. Mahalingam, T V (1991). A Topographical List of Inscriptions in the Tamilnadu and Kerala States Vol VI. New Delhi. S Chand & Company Ltd.
4. Srinivasan, K R (1996). Temples of South India. New Delhi. National Book Trust of India. ISBN 8123718675

Web References:
1. ASI Article on Vishnu Cave Temple, retrieved on 11/04/2011
2. ASI Article on Shiva Cave Temmple, retrieved on 11/04/2011
3. ASI Article on Thirumayam Fort, retrieved on 11/04/2011
4. Thirumayam.com, retrieved on 11/04/2011
5. Prabhu's Blog Article , retrieved on 11/04/2011
6. Senkkottai Sriram's Blog Article, retrieved on 11/04/2011
7. Sudarshan's Pudukkottai.info, retrieved on 11/04/2011

Thiruvengaivasal - Where a cow defeated a lion

2011-04-05T21:54:00.002+05:30

Introduction – Thiruvengaivasal, which means ‘Sacred place of gate of a tiger’ in Tamil, is connected to Thirukokarnam by a mythological legend. Kamdhenu, a celestial cow, used to shower milk on Shiva lingam at Thirukokarnam. The Lord of Thirukokarnam took form of a tiger to terrorize the cow and test her faith and belief in him. He appeared in form of a lion at Thiruvengaivasal which was on the way from which Kamdhenu used to pass every day. Kamdhenu did not get terrorize as she had her trust and faith with God and hence passed through this test. She got salvation in the hands of the Lord.

Vyaghra-purishvara Temple Vimana

Monuments – Vyaghra-purisvara temple is the main attraction of the town. This early Chola structural temple was later renovated during the Pandya rule in probably thirteenth-fourteenth century. The temple has a covered maha-mandapa, antarala and garbha-griha (sanctum). On north of the mandapa is a sub-shrine dedicated to Brahadambal goddess. As per a legend Raja Ramachandra Tondaiman wanted to install a new image of the Goddess, Amman, as the old statue was mutilated. He had a dream in which the Goddess directed him not to discard the old image. As per traditions, the old image was to be thrown in the temple tank. However the king constructed a separate shrine for the Goddess and kept the old mutilated image in that. This shrine and image is still there in the temple. On south of the temple is a shrine dedicated to Murugan.

View from NW direction

Inscriptions – To be added later

How to Reach – Thiruvengaivasal is about 10 km from Pudukkottai town located near Pudukkottai-Trichy road.

References:
1. Srinivasan, K R (1996). Temples of South India. New Delhi. National Book Trust of India. ISBN 8123718675

Web References:
1. www.pudukkottai.info, retrieved on 05.04.2011

Thirukokarnam - Gokarnesvara Temple

2011-03-13T14:15:00.007+05:30

Introduction – Gokarnesvara Temple at Thirukonarnam is an exemplary portrayal of continuous tradition and culture of Pudukkottai from ancient time. Originally constructed as a cave temple during seventh century this temple has been patronized and extended by the rulers of later dynasties. As seen with many other old temples of Pudukkottai region, this temple is also a live temple and under worship at present time. The earliest inscription found in the cave temple is written in Grantha character of seventh-eighth century. As this is not a foundation inscription hence the cave temple must be in existence at that time and hence might be constructed in early seventh century. Though the pillar style and other features of the cave temple resemble with the Pallava cave temples however few scholars suggest that this would be a creation of the Pandya-s. Argument given to support this is that the Pallavas were not ruling over this part of land hence their monuments are rare to find. Though this might be true however vassals under Pallava-s were not very far from this land. Muttharaiya-s have constructed marvelous cave temples at Namakkal not very far from Pudukkottai. But as there is no foundation inscription hence it is hard to determine authorship of the cave temple. Where the country is Pandya, the style of construction is Pallava.

Gokarnesvara Temple - Raya-gopuram

Nanacampantar, seventh century Nayanmar, has sung in praise of the Lord of Kokarnam. In Tevaram 3:337:4, Nanacampantar invokes the lord with epithet, Malaittalaivan, referring to the cave temple. Another Nayanmar, Navukkaracar, has compared the hill of Kokarnam with that of Kailasha. Though the hill is not very high however places of Shiva were usually compared to Kailasha as seen in many other temples of contemporary time such as Kailasanatha Temple at Kanchi and Kailasha Cave at Ellora. Later this comparison was done with the Meru mountain as seen in Brihadeeshvara Temple at Thanjavur. In Tevaram 6:263, Navukkaracar gives description of the Lord where he holds a sword and a tanka in his hands. Ganga mounts the crest of the Lord. He is probably referring to Gangadhara bas-relief of the cave temple.
(Above statements about Nayanmar-s and Tevaram are disputed by few scholars hence further study is needed in this direction. Will update the article once I am done with that study.)

As per stahala-purana, Kamadhenu (celestial cow) is supposed to fetch waters of the Ganga in her two ears and showered one earful on the murti (main deity image) and one into the tank. This explains the name Gokarnam, Go for cow and Karnam for ears. Currently the erstwhile princes of Pudukkottai, of Tondaiman lineage, is the trustee of this temple. The temple would have come to Tondaimans after the fall of Vijayanagara and then Nayaka rulers of Tamilnadu. They patronized this temple and the Lord of Kokarnam is Kula-devata (main deity) of Tondaiman kings.

Cave Temple

Monuments – Gokarnesvara Cave Temple is excavated on the southern slope of a low rising hill and faces east. This rectangular mandapa (hall) , 18 x18.5 feet, is supported on two pillars and two pilasters of Mahendra order (Square base and top with octagonal shaft in middle). A sanctum is sunk into the back wall and has a monolithic Shiva linga inside. Lateral side walls are ornamented with bas reliefs. Right side has Ganesha while left is adorned with Shiva as Gangadhara. There are now dvarpalas here which is a subject of curiosity.

Shiva as Gangadhara

Shiva is depicted as Gangadhara on left lateral wall of the cave mandapa. This is probably the only image of Gangadhara icon in whole of Pandya region. Shiva is shown standing in tribhanga posture. Shown with four hands, he holds an akshamala in his upper right hand while his left upper hand holds tresses of his hair. His lower hands are placed near his thighs. Ganga is shown descending down towards the head of the Lord holding her two hands in anjali mudra in upper right corner. Ganga is portrayed on right side of Shiva in Dharmaraja Ratha and Adi-Varaha Perumal temple at Mahabalipuram and Trichy Upper Cave but she is carved on left side of Shiva in Kailasanatha Temple at Kanchi.

Ganesha on lateral wall

Thitukokarnam cave is probably the only cave where we have Ganesha as a stand-alone image and also in Sapta-matrika panel. Stand alone image of Valampuri Ganesha (truck turned to right) is carved on the right lateral wall of the cave mandapa. He is shown with four hands and seated in padmasana posture. He carries his broken tusk in his left upper hand while ankusha (elephant goad) in upper right hand. A modaka (an Indian sweet) is held in his right lower hand and as well as in his trunk. He is shown wearing vastra-yajnopavita and karanda-makuta.

Sapta-matrika panel

On right side of the cave, on slopes of a boulder, are carved Sapta-matrikas accompanied with Veerabhadra and Ganesha. Order of appearance of these seven mothers is not very strict and they have seen to be arranged in different orders at different shrines. Here these are accompanied with Veerbhadra at start and Ganesha at the end. Veerbhadra is shown with four hands and seated in sukhasana posture. His upper two hands are lifted in posture of invoking something. Lower hands are kept near thighs. There are two chauris (fan) on either side of him however there are no chauri-bearers. He is followed by Brahmi who is also shown with four hands. Next to her is Mahesvari depicted with two hands only. She is followed by Vaishnavi depicted with two hands and a long kirita-makuta. She is followed by Kaumari wearing karanda-makuta. Next is Indrani and then Varahi. The last and seventh matrika is Chamunda who is shown holding a knife in one of her hands. She is also wearing a munda-mala. Ganesha is carved at the last as his regular position in sapta-matrika group.

A spacious maha-mandapa was added with an enclosure around this in the early Chola period. Two Devi shrines, one for Brhadambal and one for Mangalanayaki, were added to the cave temple complex during the later Chola rule. V Latha suggests that this would have been done during the reign of Kuluttonga Chola I who had fascination of adding separate devi shrines to Shiva temples. The temple witnessed many extensions during the rule of Vijayanagara and Nayaka rule. A Nataraja shrine was added to mahamandapa during this Vijayanagara phase. A shrine for Bakulanesvara is also added near to Sapta-matrika frieze. This shrine perhaps came after the sthalavrksha (temple tree) Bakula. As per a legend this Bakula tree blossomed when women sprinkle at it mouthful of wine. This tradition would have come due to the fact that the temple was known to have some powers for granting children to couples. There was another enclosure constructed and the empty space between two enclosure was connected with pillared mandapas. Kili-mandapa and Sukravara-mandapa are two pillared halls which are placed in this empty zone. Kili-mandapa is a twelve pillar hall which serves as a connecting link between Brhadambla, Bakulanesvara and Managalanayaki shrines. Sukravara-mandapa is a hexagonal structure supported on six pillars. This seems that this is a Tondaiman period extension as a portrait sculpture is identified with Sadasiva Brahmendra who was a saint of the time of Vijaya Raghunatha Tondaiman. A gopuram was erected to the east of Brhadambal shrine which is followed by a twenty pillar mandapa called as mangala-tirtha-mandapa. Mangala-tirtha-mandapa was constructed near the temple tank hence its purpose would be for assembly during ablution and bath ceremonies.

Anuppa-mandapa leading into the temple

On south of Brahdambal shrine a raya-gopuram was constructed accompanied with two mandapas, Kalyana-mandapa and Unjal-mandapa. Kalyana-mandapa is a twenty pillar hall having many portrait sculptures like Rati, Rama, Kamadeva and few donord. Unjal-mandapa is a eighteen pillar hall which might be used after the marriage ceremony of Shiva and Parvati in Kalyana-mandapa for couples to sit in a swing. One more mandapa, Anuppa-mandapa, was constructed to the south of raya-gopuram. Anuppa-mandapa is supported on fourteen pillars, seven in two rows. This hall corridor leads into the temple complex from outside. The ceiling is famous for Vijayanagara time painting depicting stories from Ramayana.

All major later extension were centered around the Brhadambal shrine which suggests that the cave temple was overshadowed with the goddess cult. There were five cars associated with the temple, four still surviving. This shows that the temple held an important place in olden days and processions would have been performed on a grand scale.

Inscriptions – Most of the inscriptions found in the temple are from the time of the Cholas. All are donative inscriptions which either talk about certain grant or donation for lamps such as that of Rajakesarivarman Chola, Kopparakesarivarman. Mention of celebrating tiruvuttiram festival in the month of Pankuni during the reign of Kulottunga Chola is found in one inscription. An inscription in the reign of Rajaraja of later Chola period talks about a gift of nontavilakk (eternal lamp) to the brahmanas of the temple.

No 174 of South Indian Inscriptions Vol XIII - On the east face of the 2nd pillar in front of the rock-cut shrine
This Chola inscription is built in at end. It mentions God Sri Gokaranattu-Madeva in Tiruvelppur, a devadana in Kavira-nadu.

Pandya inscriptions also talk about various grants and endowments made to the temple. An inscription from the reign of Maran Sadaiyan talks about nontavilakku gifted by one Nakkancetti of some trading community. Konerimaikondan, Kulasekhara Pandya made endowments for festivals Pallavan-canti, Pallavan-tirunal, Vaikaci-tirunal and for procession in Cittirai. Maravarman Sundara Pandya inscription talks about tax free land donated to the temple.

Inscriptions during Vijayanagara regime are from the time of Viranna Udaiyar and Viruppanna (Kampana) Udaiyar. Kampana donated lands as tirunamakkani. It is stated that the gifts were inscribed and give, kalvettik kutukkaiyil.

How to Reach –Thirukokarnam is located about 3 km on Pudukkottai outskirts. Pudukkottai is well connected to major cities of Tamilnadu via rail and road links. The nearest airport is at Trichy which is about 50 km from Pudukkottai.

References:
1. Gopalakrishnan, S (2005). Early Pandyan Iconometry. New Delhi. Sharada Publishing House. ISBN 8188934216
2. Latha, V (2005). Cave Temples of Pandya Country: Art and Ritual. New Delhi. Sharada Publishing House. ISBN 8188934224
3. Srinivasan, K R (1996). Temples of South India. New Delhi. National Book Trust of India. ISBN 8123718675

Thirukkattalai - Ashta-Parivara Shrine

2011-03-08T22:27:00.012+05:30

Introduction – History of Thirukkattalai region goes way back to pre-historic times as few burial sites are found around this village. It was under the Chola rulers during the medieval period of Indian history who probably built a Shiva temple here. The earliest inscription found in the temple is from the Chola ruler Adithya I (871-907 CE) and it talks about a grant made to temple. This suggests that the temple would have been constructed in early ninth century CE. The village was known as Kalkurichchi in its inscriptions and the lord is referred as Karrali-perumanadigal, Vignesvaradeva, Tirukkarrali-Alvar or just Mahadevar. The present name of the village, Thirukkattalai, seems to have been derived from Tirukkarrali. The village would have held importance as there are inscriptions from the Chola kings of the ninth century to twelfth century. However after their collapse by the Pandya-s, the temple went into oblivion as none Pandya inscription is found here. At present it has been reduced to a small village. There is great scope for studying the explanations of such transformations from large towns of the past to small villages of the present.

Monuments – The only monument of antiquity is Sundaresvara Temple which was built during the early Chola rule.

Sundaresvara Temple

Sundaresvara Temple – This east facing Shiva temple is an important example of early Chola architecture. This is constructed in parivara style where eight sub-shrines are placed surrounding a main central shrine. Various deities related to Shiva family are placed in these sub-shrines hence the term ‘parivara’ style. This style was very much in fashion during the Chola rule. This parivara arrangement is also seen at Virattanesvara temple at Tiruttani. One important feature of this temple is that all the sub-shrines have deities images inside which is a rare occurrence among the extant temples of that time.

Temple Vimana

The temple is constructed with dressed granite blocks. It consists a garbha-griha (sanctum sanctorum), antarala (vestibule), mukha-mandapa (main hall). There is a later period Nandi-mandapa and bali-pitha constructed in front of the temple. Garbha-griha is an eight feet square room. The temple has a square vimana with two tiers falling under dvi-tala category. Cornice have kudu-s (horse-shoe shaped windows) with a human heads inside. Below the cornice is bhuta-vali/gana-vali (dwarf frieze). A vyala row separates the first tier with cornice. Vyala row is extended with elephant frieze to go around mandapa. Kuta-s (square shrine) and sala-s (oblong shrines) are arranged in regular manner on the first tier. Kuta-s are placed at corners while sala-s in middle. Shikhara of these have nasika (kudu like structure) on all sides. Sala-s have gable ends which are also constructed in kudu fashion. Niches are provided below these nasika-s. Above this is second tier consisting of rising walls with pilasters. Above that is placed square griva (neck) which is topped with square shikhara. This square form of shikhara puts the temple under Nagara architectural style. Nandi-s are placed at four corners at the base of griva. Square shikhara has maha-nasika-s in middle of each side. Below these are provided niches housing images. Nandi-s face all the four directions in contrast to the arrangement at Muvar Koil where they faces only east or west.

Tripuranataka on south wall niche

Veenadhara Dakshinamurti

South side of the temple has three niches, two on vimana tiers and one on the wall. Niche in the wall has Shiva as Tripurantaka. He is standing with a bow in his left hand and an ankusha (elephant goad) in his right hand. Usually Tripurantaka icon is not shown in static posture but rather in movement of destroying Tripura. Also as there is no arrow in his hands hence it is not very certain whether this is Tripurantaka icon. Uppermost vimana niche houses Shiva as Dakshinamurti where he is seated holding a veena. This Veenadhara-Dakshinamurti is a rare icon as not many such instances are found. Middle niche has Shiva as Bhikshatanamurti. He is portrayed without clothes and accompanied by a deer.

Vishnu on west wall niche

West side has Vishnu (?) in wall niche however this icon is not very clear. One article suggests that this could be Lingodbhava however I am not convinced with that statement. As a chakra (discus) like thing is visible in his right hand so this could be Vishnu. As per Chola architectural style, both Vishnu and Lingodbhava can be placed at west side. Uppermost niche has Vishnu as Varaha shown seated with his consort. However his consort is not Varahi. This is also a rare icon as not many such seated Varaha instances are found. Middle niche has Vishnu in seated posture.

Brahma on north wall niche

North side wall niche has Brahma standing on a pedestal. Uppermost niche and middle niche also houses Brahma in seated posture. Niche in sala-s have two guardians on either side rising slightly from the base above. This kind of feature became an integral part of gopuram architecture during Pandya-s and Nayaka-s. There are other attendants in side niches of kuta-s and sala-s however as the images are blackened and not very clear so no inference can be drawn. However these images would be of some demi-gods or ganas as major deities are not expected there.

There is an important feature seen in some pilasters of this temple. Potikas (abacus) of these have rearing lions whose heads reach the bhuta-vali level below cornice. As already seen that with the Cholas, rearing lion pillar base style was not any more used. Would it be ok to say that though the lion base was done away with however this motif still retained its place above abacus. I am not sure as it’s just an inference and we should always remember that not every work found in architecture of that time was copy of something done earlier somewhere else. There must have been ingenious ideas in that time as well, why we forget this simple thing and try to always draw an influence from earlier works.

Sapta-matrika sub-shrine

Starting from east, the first sub-shrine has Surya (Sun) image inside. Though he is shown in his regular characteristic of holding two lotuses in his two hands or riding on a chariot drawn by seven horses but a prabhavali (aura) behind his head suggests that this could be Surya. Another supports comes from Chola parivara arrangement which states that this direction, south-east, belongs to Surya. Next sub-shrine in line, in south, is for Sapta-matrikas (seven mothers). This oblong shrine shape is appropriate to house seven or nine (if accompanied with Veerbhadra and Ganesha) statues. Next sub-shrine in south-west is dedicated to Ganesha. Next shrine in west is dedicated to Subramanya. Shrine in north-west is dedicated to Jyestha. She is shown accompanied with Gomukha and a lady attendant. There is a crow, her mount, also seen on her right side. Next shrine on north is little out of place. The deity inside is probably Chandra (Moon). This place is usually for a shrine of Chandeshvara. In this temple, shrine for Chandeshvara is placed next to previous shrine. This shrine is placed at north-east axis, slightly towards north. The last shrine is not exactly a sub-shrine as its dimensions are quite large in comparison to other shrines. This large shrine is dedicated to Bhairava who is shown with four hands carrying trisula (trident) and snake. His mount, dog, is shown behind him. Usually the place of Bhairava shrine should be on north-east axis as per regular Chola parivara arrangement. I feel that as the temple has seven sub-shrines of comparable dimensions hence it is very probably that it confines to the regular arrangement of Chola style. It might be that Bhairava image was taken from that sub-shrine and placed in new bigger shrine. But if this is true then they did replacements in three shrines, sub-shrine number seven and six with bigger shrine as Chandeshvara is also not in its correct place. This makes is little difficult and less probable. Image of Bhairava is not very small to get accommodated in a smaller shrine and this makes it more less probable for suggested rearrangement at a later stage.

Inscriptions – There are few inscriptions found in this temple however no foundation inscription. The earliest one is from the Chola ruler Aditya I (871-907 CE) who allowed certain grants to the temple. This place is referred as Thiruk-karrali meaning ‘the sacred stone temple’ and as Karkurichchi in inscriptions. Inscriptions in detail are given below:

1. No 21 of the Inscriptions of the Pudukkottai State - North wall of the central shrine - Written in Tamil in 10 lines - damaged and incomplete - dated in the third regnal year of the Chola king Rajakesarivarman (Aditya I) approximately 874 CE - Seems to record some gift of land made by Mudichcholataraiyan of Kavirpal in Valla-nadu.
2. No 38 of the Inscriptions of the Pudukkottai State - On South wall of the central shrine - Written in Tamil in 30 lines - badly damaged - dated in the second regnal year of the Chola king Parakesarivarman (Parantaka I) approximately in 909 CE - Records a gift of land by the nadu of Kallappal and Kavirpal in Valla-nadu as tiruvilappuram to the temple of Tirukkarrali-Alvar of Karkurichchi in Valla-nadu. Among the boundaries of the gifted land are mentioned Ilavachcheru and Andarattali-Punjey, the latter of which might have been a site of urn-burial in the past.
3. No 51 of the Inscriptions of the Pudukkottai State - On South wall of the central shrine - Written in Tamil in 19 lines - dated in the ninth regnal year of the Chola king Parakesarivarman (Parantaka I) approximately to 916 CE - Records a gift of 10 kasu and a lamp with stand (nilai-vilakku) for maintaining a perpetual lamp in the temple of Karralipperumanadigal at Karkurichchi by Kandangorran and his younger brothers, on behalf of Singangorran. Karkurichchi was situated in the Kavirpal of Valla-nadu.
4. No 81 of the Inscriptions of the Pudukkottai State - On South wall of the central shrine - Written in Tamil in 16 lines - dated in the thirty-fifth regnal year of the Chola king Madiraikonda Parakesarivarman (Parantaka I) approximately to 942 CE - Records a gift of land in Terrallur by the ur of Karkurichchi as taruvilappuram to the temple of Perumanadigal in the same village. The record is dated thirty-fifth year of the king at the end also.
5. No 118 of the Inscriptions of the Pudukkottai State - On South wall of the central shrine - Written in Tamil in 18 lines - dated in the ninth regnal year of the Chola king Kulottunga-Choladeva (Kulottunga I) approximately to 1079 CE - Begins with historical introduction Pugalmadu virumba, etc, of the inscription of the king. Refers to the death of Bogendrasingapperaraiyan of Karkurichchi in the fight (pusal) at Milattur. Palamandala-Peraiyan of Milattur and his brother Anukkan made a gift of 25 sheep for supplying half the amount of ghee to set up a lamp in the local temple with the wish that the feuds may stop (pagai-orunga).
6. No 119 of the Inscriptions of the Pudukkottai State - On South wall of the central shrine - Written in Tamil in 6 lines - dated in the tenth regnal year of the Chola king Kulottunga-Choladeva, approximately to 1080 CE - Begins with the historical introduction of the inscription of the king. Registers a gift of land to the god Vignesvaradeva of Tirukkarrali at Karkurichchi by Rajendracholamangala-nadalvan alisa Araiyan Chendan of Karkurichchi, situated in the Kallapal of Tenkavir-nadu, a sub division of Jayasingakulakala-valanadu.
7. No 232 of the Inscriptions of the Pudukkottai State - On North wall of the central shrine - Written in Tamil in 44 lines - slightly damaged - dated in the forty-eighth regnal year of the Chola king Kulottunga-Choladeva (Kulottunga I), approximately in 1118 CE - Records a gift of land for maintaining one half of a perpetual lamp in the Mahadevar temple at Karkurichchi, by a Kallan of the village, Pappan Chendan alias Kulottungachola-mangala-nadalvan, in memory of another Kallan Amarpeti Kuppai. The upasakars received the gift and undertook to burn the lamp. Kalkurichchi was situated in the Kallapal of Tenkavir-nadu, a sub division of Rajaraja-valanadu.
8. No 145 of the Inscriptions of the Pudukkottai State - On East wall of the central shrine - Written in Tamil in 7 lines - incomplete - dated in the second regnal year of the Chola king Kulottunga-Choladeva (Kulottunga III), approximately in 1180 CE- Seems to record that the members of Korakurichchi made a gift of the padikaval rights of Sedikulamanikkapuram alias Kalayamangalam to the god of the local temple. There is also a reference in the latter portion of the record to the fourteenth year of Periyanayanar Kulottungacholadevar.

How to Reach – This village is about 15 km from Pudukkottai. I am not sure which particular road it was as I was traveling in a taxi and forgot to write down directions, however I am very sure that this place was not very far from Pudukkottai and local enquiry at the town will help in finding appropriate directions.

References:
1. Mahalingam, T V (1991). A Topographical List of Inscriptions in the Tamilnadu and Kerala States Vol VI. New Delhi. S Chand & Company Ltd.
2. Srinivasan, K R (1996). Temples of South India. New Delhi. National Book Trust of India. ISBN 8123718675